Trauma in Pregnancy

October 25, 2019October 25, 2019 ~ AlHanouv AlQahtani, KSA ~ Leave a comment

Trauma remains the leading cause of morbidity and mortality in pregnant women. It increases the risk of preterm delivery, placenta abruption, fetomaternal hemorrhage, and pregnancy loss. Motor Vehicle Accidents (MVAs) account for 70% of blunt abdominal trauma, then comes falls and direct assaults.

Evaluating and managing pregnant trauma patients requires knowing some physiological changes in pregnancy.

Physiological changes in pregnancy

Maternal blood volume increases at 10 weeks and reaches a peak level at 28 weeks (45%)
Mild anemia because of increased plasma volume (plasma > red blood cells)
Cardiac output increases by 1-1.5L/min at 10 weeks until the end of pregnancy
Heart rate increases by 10-20 beats/min at the 2nd trimester + decrease in the blood pressure (BP) by 10-15 mmHg. This explains the late deterioration in dropping BP; they may lose 30-40% of blood before signs of hypotension
Uterine blood flow = maternal mean arterial pressure
At 12 weeks, the uterus becomes an intra-abdominal organ, which is susceptible to direct injuries
The bladder becomes anterior
Gravid uterus causes stretching to the abdominal wall
At 18-20 weeks, an expanding mass of gravid uterus causes hypotension in the supine position by compressing the IVC. Avoid placing IV lines in the femoral/lower extremities.
Diaphragm elevated 4 cm, which makes the tidal volume increase by 40%, residual volume decreases by 25%, which causes the short apnea time in pregnant patients
Splenic injury is a common cause of hemorrhage

Important actions in pregnant trauma patients

Apply supplemental oxygen early because of compensation of hypoxia is limited
Consider early intubation
50% more fluids are needed for volume replacement
At 20 weeks, place wedge under the right hip, tilting to 30 degrees during the transfer on trauma board
Early nasogastric tube placement to avoid aspiration
Avoid pressors, which causes uteroplacental hypoperfusion

Rhogam (Rh immunoglobulin) and Tetanus Prophylaxis

Administer RhoD (Human Rho(D) immune globulin) to Rh-negative women; 50 mcg for <12 weeks, 300 mcg for >12 weeks. Tetanus prophylaxis is safe but considered as category C.

Images and Radiation Exposure

Do not withhold needed images. The greatest risk to fetal viability from ionizing radiation is within the first 2 weeks after conception and the highest malformation during the embryogenic organogenesis at 2-8 weeks. The risk of central nervous system teratogenesis is highest at 8-16 weeks. A dose of 5 rad is the threshold for human teratogenesis. Plain radiographs is <1 rad. Abdominal CT + Pelvic angio has the highest dose of rad (2.5-3.5). One of the critical problems is the abruption of the placenta, and CT is sensitive for abruption placenta, 86%, and has 98% specificity. The iodine contrast could cross the placenta and causing neonatal hypothyroidism.

Pelvic exam can be done only after performing an ultrasound to determine the placenta location and exclude placenta previa.

Special Tests

Vaginal fluid pH. If the pH is 7, it is amniotic fluid. If the pH is 5, it is vaginal secretions. Ferning on microscope slide = amniotic fluid.

APT ( alkali denaturation) test is qualitative evaluation to determine the presence of fetal Hg in maternal blood.

Kleihauer-Betke test measures fetal hemoglobin transfer to mothers’ blood.

Specific Issues

Direct fetal injuries

It is rare. It can be seen some injuries such as maternal pelvic fractures, direct trauma to the fetal skull.
Uterine rupture

It is less than 1%. It may be seen at late second and third trimester. It is associated with high fetal mortality. The palpation of fetal parts over the abdomen and radiological evidence of abnormal fetal location determine rupture.
Uterine rupture

It is less than 1%. It may be seen at late second and third trimester. It is associated with high fetal mortality. The palpation of fetal parts over the abdomen and radiological evidence of abnormal fetal location determine rupture.
Uterine irritability

The sign of the onset of preterm labor. Avoid using tocolytics; it causes tachycardia for both mother and fetus.
Placental abruption

1-5% from minor injuries, 40-50% of major injuries. Even simple falls can cause sudden fetal demise. Most sensitive clinical findings; uterine irritability, which can be explained by having more than 3 contractions per hour at the ED.

Fetal viability

The fetus will likely be viable at 24 weeks and above.
The normal fetal heart rate is 120-160 bpm. Heart rate below and above these limits is critical. Because ultrasound may not detect placenta abruption, nor rupture or fetal-placental injuries, high-suspicion and close monitorization are necessary.

Cardiotocography (CTG)

4-6 hours will be enough for most of the cases. Persistent contractions or uterine irritability needs an external CTG for 24 hrs. Fewer than 3 contractions per hour could indicate a safe discharge.

Indication for Emergency C-Section

Fetal tachycardia.
Lack of beat to beat on long term viability.
Late deceleration = fetal distress.

C-section has a 75% survival rate in 26 weeks or above. If the fetal heartbeats are present and the procedure was performed early, the success rate is higher.

References and Further Reading

Tintinalli, J., Stapczynski, J., Ma, O. J., Cline, D., Cydulka, R., & Meckler, G. (2010). Tintinalli’s emergency medicine: a comprehensive study guide: a comprehensive study guide. McGraw Hill Professional.

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Against Medical Advice and Elopement

March 1, 2019February 27, 2019 ~ iEM Education Project Team ~ Leave a comment

In certain circumstances, patients may request to leave prior to completion of their medical evaluation and treatment. In this situation, it is essential for the last health care professional caring for the patient to document clearly why the patient left and attested that the patient had the mental capacity to make such a decision at that time (Henry, 2013). While some electronic documentation systems have templates in place to assist with this documentation, Table 2 provides basic information for against medical advice (AMA) discharge documentation that can be used to create a uniform template (Henry, 2013; Siff, 2011; Levy, 2012; Devitt, 2000).

What to do?

Interventions in the ED Discharge Process

Domain	Intervention
Content	Standardize approach
Delivery	Verbal instructions (language and culture appropriate) Written instructions (literary levels) Basic Instructions (including return precautions) Media, visual cues or adjuncts
Comprehension	Confirm comprehension (teach-back method)
Implementation	Resource connections (Rx, appointment, durable medical supplies, follow-up) Medication review

An attempt should be made to provide the patient with appropriate discharge instructions, even if a complete diagnosis may not yet be determined. Include advice for the patient to follow up with his physician, strict return precautions, and concerning symptoms that should prompt the patient to seek further care. It should also be made clear that leaving against medical advice does not prevent the patient from returning to the emergency department for further evaluation if his symptoms worsen, or if he changes his mind. Despite a common notion to the contrary, simply leaving against medical advice does not automatically imply that physicians are immune to potential medical liability (Levy, 2012; Devitt, 2000). If a patient lacks decision-making capacity to be able to adequately understand the rationale and consequences of leaving AMA and his condition places him at risk for imminent harm, involuntary hospitalization is warranted. In unclear circumstances and if available, psychiatry can assist in determining capacity, especially in the case of patients with mental health conditions.

Elopement is a similar process where patients disappear during the care process. While it is difficult to provide discharge paperwork for these patients, documenting the actions taken to find the patient is essential (e.g., searching the ED, having security check the surrounding areas). In addition, attempt to reach the patient by phone to discuss his elopement and any additional care issues or concerns. Documentation of these attempts or any additional conversation is very important (Henry, 2013; Siff, 2011).

To Know More About It?

References

Brooten J, Nicks B. Discharge Communications. In: Cevik AA, Quek LS, Noureldin A, Cakal ED (eds) iEmergency Medicine for Medical Students and Interns – 2018. Retrieved February 27, 2019, from https://iem-student.org/discharge-communications/
Henry GL, Gupta G. (2013). Medical-Legal Issues in Emergency Medicine. In Adams (Ed.), Emergency Medicine Clinical Essentials, 2nd Ed; 1759-65. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier.
Siff JE. (2011). Legal Issues in Emergency Medicine. In Tintinalli’s (Ed.), Emergency Medicine, 7th Ed; 2021-31. McGraw-Hill.
Levy F, Mareiniss DP, Lacovelli C. The Importance of a Proper Against-Medical-Advice (AMA) Discharge. How Signing Out AMA May Create Significant Liability Protection for Providers. J Emerg Med. 2012;43(3):516-520.
Devitt PJ, Devitt AC, Dewan M. An examination of whether discharging patients against medical advice protects physicians from malpractice charges. Psychiatr Serv. 2000;51:899-902.

Communication is the key!

February 20, 2019February 21, 2019 ~ iEM Education Project Team ~ Leave a comment

Reflections by Vijay Nagpal and Bret A. Nicks

While many believe the environment of care is the greatest limiting factor as opposed to quality communication, literature would suggest otherwise. Establishing a positive patient-provider relationship is essential for patient care. One must recognize that while you may not be able to solve the patient’s condition or chronic illness, using effective communication skills and providing a positive patient experience will assuage many patient fears (Mole, 2016). Keep in mind, in general, patients remember less than 10% of the content (what was actually said), 38% of how you say it (verbal liking), and 55% of how you look saying it (body language) (Helman, 2015).

Patients remember

What you say

Web Designer 10%

How you say it

38%

How you look saying it

55%

Effective provider communicators routinely employ these 5 Steps

1 Be Genuine

We know it. People can sense the disingenuous person – whether it is a gut feeling or through other senses. Try to see the situation from the patient’s perspective, and it will ensure that you are acting in his best interest and with integrity.

2 Be Present

As emergency providers, we are interrupted more than perhaps any other specialty. However, for the few moments that we are engaged with the patient or his family, be all in. If there is a planned interruption upcoming, make it known prior to starting a discussion. Be focused on them and the conversation; value what they have to share. At the end of your encounter, briefly summarizing what the patient has told you can help to reassure the patient that you were listening and also give them the chance to clarify discrepancies.

3 Ask Questions

To effectively communicate, one must listen more than he talks. After introducing yourself, inquire about the patient’s medical concern; give them 60 seconds of uninterrupted time. Most patients are amazed and provide unique insights that would otherwise not be obtained. Once the patient has provided you with his concerns, begin asking the specific questions needed to further differentiate the care needed. By asking questions and allowing for answers, you make it about them and give them an avenue to share with you what they are most concerned about, enabling you to address those concerns.

4 Build Trust

Given the nature of the patient-provider relationship in emergency medicine, building trust is essential but often difficult. Building trust is like building a fire; it starts with the initial contact and builds with each interaction. Trust is also built on engaging in culturally acceptable interactions (Chan, 2012) such as a handshake, affirming node, hand-on-shoulder, or engaging posture.

5 Communicate Directly

Ensure that at the end of your initial encounter you have established a clear plan of care, what the patient can expect, how long it may take, and when you will return to reassess or provide additional information. Doing this also allows the patient to be more involved in his care and ask further questions regarding his workup and treatment plan. Additionally, helping the patient to understand what to expect while in the department can help to alleviate fear associated with unannounced tests or imaging studies, especially when these tests may require him or her to be temporarily taken out of the department (e.g., a trip to the CT scanner).

Many of these concepts have been identified in patient satisfaction and operational metrics. In one study, wait times were not associated with the perception of quality of care, but empathy by the provider with the initial interaction was clearly associated (Helman, 2015). In addition, patient dissatisfaction with delays to care is less linked to the actual time spent in the ED and more with a to set time expectations about the care process, a perceived lack of personal attention, and a perceived lack of staff communication and concern for the patient’s comfort.

To learn more about it

References

Nagpal V, Nicks BA. Communication and Interpersonal Interactions. In: Cevik AA, Quek LS, Noureldin A, Cakal ED (eds) iEmergency Medicine for Medical Students and Interns – 2018. Retrieved February 15, 2019, from https://iem-student.org/communication-and-interpersonal-interactions/
Mole TB, Begum H, Cooper-Moss N, et al. Limits of ‘patient-centeredness’: valuing contextually specific communication patterns. Med Educ. 2016 Mar; 50(3):359-69.
Helman A. Effective Patient Communication. Available at: http://emergencymedicinecases.com/episode-49-patient-centered-care/ Accessed December 18, 2015.
Chan EM, Wallner C, Swoboda TK, et al. Assessing Interpersonal and Communication Skills in Emergency Medicine. Acad Emerg Med 2012; 19:1390-1402.