Category: Drugs

Fight against superdrugs

~ Sajan Acharya, Nepal ~ Leave a comment

This is an essay I wrote for the Antibiotic Week celebrated at Patan Hospital back when I was a medical student. Here I portray myself as a happy bacterium that is thriving in a world where antibiotic stewardship is not followed.

Anti-Antibiotics week has been being celebrated in the bacteria world since the first beta-lactamases were invented. This year, an adolescent staphylococcus with a lot of wisdom is giving a speech.

VRSA, the vice president of Fight against Super Drugs Development (FSDD), has been actively advocating (mechanisms of antibiotic resistance) among less privileged groups of bacteria. “Triumph of hope over desperation,” said the vice-president of the FSDD club, pointing towards the antimicrobial week that humans celebrate. Then he invited a bacterium on the stage to shed some light on the glorified FSDD club.

“Hello! I am a bacterium. I belong to the staphylococcus group according to the classification done by another species here on earth. An anecdote; they consider themselves superior enough to fight against us. They are that foolish a species. Today, I’ll tell you about my daily activities and my life goals. Now, it’s a known fact that we fit in the grand scheme of things better than any other species. Well, maybe viruses are debatably our competitors in that regard, but that’s an issue I’ll consider later. My parents tell me that I am a very happy and brave bacterium, just like them. As you all know, we, staphylococci, are very social bacteria. We like in clusters and love keeping cats as pets. It’s funny how human beings think we’re catalase positive. But anyhow, Almighty didn’t make them as bright as us! They’re bad!

I love traveling. I stay in people’s homes, their dishes, food, and all the places you can imagine. I love dirty hands. I hide just under a dirty nail and say goodbye to my siblings as they go to all the places the unclean hand touches. And you’d be amazed if I tell you where people let us go without washing their hands. This one time, I was talking with my cousin Roy the streptococci under a thumb-nail, and the man under whose thumb-nail we were discussing our career option touched a tiny human being. They call them neonates, I guess. After a week,  Cousin Roy wrote to me that his career goals are being met and that he has a thriving business of causing impetigo on that small neonate’s cheeks. He is also thinking of extending his business. Chains of impetigo maybe, like chains of hotels humans came up with so that we can harbor on leftovers and unhygienic food.

If you are starting to think that humans might be actually helping us take over the world, wait till I tell you about some more kind human beings. But first I’d want to tell you about some human beings that are rude and unhelpful. They belong to no specific place and are very hard to recognize. Most of them wear this white coat and carry some long rope around their neck. They’ve invented and are using chemicals to kill us. The funny thing is, even after we had a head start in evolution; they came up with such powerful substances. But thanks to our brave ancestors who used all their wit to figure out ways to survive. (Mechanism of resistance and things like transposons etc.) that our vice president advocated at the beginning was their gift to us.

This is where the kind among these white coats-wearing people fit in the story. It would sound unbelievably funny, but they started using those chemicals so rampant that we had enough samples to bring to our labs, test them with our brightest minds and make changes in us that would render these chemicals useless. I mean, why would you use only the power you have against your strongest enemy so carelessly? They started prescribing antibiotics to people harboring our friend viruses and fungi; they started taking fewer doses of these chemicals, which helped us take samples and conduct more studies on them. As ridiculous as it may sound, they started giving them to other animals even when they weren’t sick. There are plenty of journals written by our bacteria brothers who live in pigs about inventing different approaches to render these chemicals useless. Thanks to an ample number of samples provided by the pig farmers.

Talking about researches, some are going on the human side of the battlefield too. That’s our greatest threat. But here’s the good news; we are inventing new tricks and tweaks to get by the chemicals humans use to kill us with. They are not creating more chemicals as efficiently. Once I was on the hand of this biochemist who forgot to wash his hands after touching a petri-dish; that’s my birthplace, by the way. He was in this conference where people were discussing hurdles to the development of super drugs. I was tiny then, so I couldn’t catch all of what they were speaking, but things like insufficient funding and pharmaceuticals being more interested in modifying the same drug and making it earn more for them came up repeatedly.

I would like to end with a quote I heard at that very conference. “With great power comes great responsibilities.” So, let’s remember when we come up with great ideas to get by every weapon humans have against us, we have a responsibility to share it with our offspring. Let’s rule the world!”

Cite this article as: Sajan Acharya, Nepal, "Fight against superdrugs," in International Emergency Medicine Education Project, October 11, 2021, https://iem-student.org/2021/10/11/fight-against-superdrugs/, date accessed: September 21, 2023

Question Of The Day #58

question of the day
~ Joseph Ciano, USA ~ Leave a comment
720 - variceal bleeding

Which of the following is the most appropriate next step in management?   

  • A) 1000mL IV Normal saline
  • B) 1 Unit Packed Red Blood Cells
  • C) IV Ceftriaxone
  • D) IV Pantoprazole

This cirrhotic patient presents to the Emergency Department with epigastric pain after an episode of hematemesis at home.  His initial vital signs are within normal limits.  While waiting in the Emergency Department, his clinical status changes.  The patient has a large volume of hematemesis with hypotension and tachycardia.  This patient is now in hemorrhagic shock from an upper gastrointestinal bleed and requires immediate volume resuscitation.  The most common cause of upper gastrointestinal bleeding is peptic ulcer disease, but this patient’s cirrhosis history and large volume of hematemesis should raise concern for an esophageal variceal bleed.  IV Pantoprazole (Choice D) is a proton pump inhibitor that helps reduce bleeding in peptic ulcers, but it does not provide benefit in esophageal varices.  Volume repletion is also a more important initial step than giving pantoprazole.  IV Ceftriaxone (Choice C) helps reduce the likelihood of infectious complications in variceal bleed patients.  This has a mortality benefit and is a recommended adjunctive treatment.  However, rapid volume resuscitation is a more important initial step.  IV crystalloid fluids, like normal saline (Choice A), are helpful in patients with hypovolemic shock (i.e., dehydration, vomiting), distributive shock (i.e., sepsis, anaphylaxis), and obstructive shock (i.e., tension pneumothorax, etc.).  Hypovolemic shock due to severe hemorrhage (hemorrhagic shock) requires blood products, not crystalloid fluids which can further dilute blood and cause coagulopathy.  Administration of packed red blood cells (Choice B) is the best next step in management in this case.

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References

Cite this article as: Joseph Ciano, USA, "Question Of The Day #58," in International Emergency Medicine Education Project, October 8, 2021, https://iem-student.org/2021/10/08/question-of-the-day-58/, date accessed: September 21, 2023

Question Of The Day #57

question of the day
~ Joseph Ciano, USA ~ Leave a comment

Which of the following is the most likely cause for this patient’s condition?  

  • A) Hypovolemic shock
  • B) Distributive shock
  • C) Obstructive shock
  • D) Cardiogenic shock

This young female presents with dizziness, fatigue, nausea, generalized abdominal pain, hypotension, tachycardia, and a positive urine pregnancy test.  The anechoic (black) areas on the bedside ultrasound indicate free fluid (blood) in the peritoneal space.  See the image below for clarification. Yellow arrows indicates free fluids.

This patient is in a state of physiologic shock.  Shock is an emergency medical state characterized by cardiovascular or circulatory failure.  Shock prevents peripheral tissues from receiving adequate perfusion, resulting in organ dysfunction and failure.  Shock can be categorized as hypovolemic, distributive, obstructive, or cardiogenic.  The different categories of shock are defined by their underlying cause (i.e., sepsis, hemorrhage, pulmonary embolism, etc.) and their hemodynamics which sometimes overlap.  The diagnosis of shock is largely clinical and supported by the history, vital signs, and physical exam.  Additional studies, such as laboratory investigations, bedside ultrasound, and imaging tests help narrow down the type of shock, potential triggers, and guide management. 

This patient’s condition is caused by a presumed ruptured ectopic pregnancy and intraperitoneal bleeding.  This is considered hypovolemic/hemorrhagic shock (Choice A). The other types of shock in Choices B, C, and D are less likely given the clinical and diagnostic information in the case.  The chart below details the categories of shock, each category’s hemodynamics, potential causes, and treatments.  

 

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References

Cite this article as: Joseph Ciano, USA, "Question Of The Day #57," in International Emergency Medicine Education Project, October 1, 2021, https://iem-student.org/2021/10/01/question-of-the-day-57/, date accessed: September 21, 2023

Question Of The Day #56

question of the day
~ Joseph Ciano, USA ~ Leave a comment

Which of the following is the most likely cause of this patient’s condition?

  • A) Hypovolemic shock
  • B) Distributive shock
  • C) Obstructive shock
  • D) Cardiogenic shock

This trauma patient arrives with hypotension, tachycardia, absent unilateral lung sounds, and distended neck veins. This should raise high concern for tension pneumothorax, which is a type of obstructive shock (Choice C). This diagnosis should be made clinically without X-ray imaging. Bedside ultrasound can assist in making the diagnosis by looking for bilateral lung sliding, if available. Treatment of tension pneumothorax should be prompt and includes needle decompression followed by tube thoracostomy. Other types of shock outlined in Choices A, B, and D do not fit the clinical scenario with information that is given.

Recall that shock is an emergency medical state characterized by cardiovascular or circulatory failure. Shock prevents peripheral tissues from receiving adequate perfusion, resulting in organ dysfunction and failure. Shock can be categorized as hypovolemic, distributive, obstructive, or cardiogenic. The different categories of shock are defined by their underlying cause (i.e., sepsis, hemorrhage, pulmonary embolism, etc.) and their hemodynamics which sometimes overlap. The diagnosis of shock is largely clinical and supported by the history, vital signs, and physical exam. Additional studies, such as laboratory investigations, bedside ultrasound, and imaging tests help narrow down the type of shock, potential triggers, and guide management. The chart below details the categories of shock, each category’s hemodynamics, potential causes, and treatments.

 

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References

Cite this article as: Joseph Ciano, USA, "Question Of The Day #56," in International Emergency Medicine Education Project, September 24, 2021, https://iem-student.org/2021/09/24/question-of-the-day-56/, date accessed: September 21, 2023

Question Of The Day #55

question of the day
~ Joseph Ciano, USA ~ Leave a comment
738.2 - STEMI
Which of the following is the most likely cause for this patient’s condition?  
  • A) Hypovolemia
  • B) Systemic infection
  • C) Pulmonary embolism
  • D) Poor cardiac output

This patient presents with chest pressure at rest and an anterior ST segment elevation myocardial infraction (STEMI) seen on 12-lead EKG.  This patient should be given aspirin, IV fluids to increase the preload status, and receive immediate coronary reperfusion therapy.  This patient’s hypotension is likely due to infarction of the left ventricle causing poor cardiac output (Choice D).  This is known as cardiogenic shock.  The patient has been vomiting, but the acute onset of symptoms and STEMI on EKG make poor cardiac output (Choice D) more likely than hypovolemia (Choice A) as the cause for the patient’s condition.  Systemic infection (Choice B) and pulmonary embolism (Choice C) are also less likely given the clinical information in the case and the STEMI on EKG.  The best answer is Choice D.  Please see the chart below for further detailing of the different types of shock.   

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References

Cite this article as: Joseph Ciano, USA, "Question Of The Day #55," in International Emergency Medicine Education Project, September 17, 2021, https://iem-student.org/2021/09/17/question-of-the-day-55/, date accessed: September 21, 2023

Question Of The Day #54

question of the day
~ Joseph Ciano, USA ~ Leave a comment
Which of the following is the most likely cause for this patient’s condition?
  • A) Hypovolemic shock
  • B) Distributive shock
  • C) Obstructive shock
  • D) Cardiogenic shock

This patient sustained significant blunt trauma to the chest, presents to the Emergency Department with hypotension, tachycardia, a large chest ecchymosis, and palpable sternal crepitus.  The ultrasound image provided shows a subxiphoid view of the heart with a large pericardial effusion.  In the setting of trauma, this should be assumed to be a hemopericardium.  This patient has cardiac tamponade, which is considered a type of obstructive shock (Choice C).  Treatment includes IV hydration to increase preload, bedside pericardiocentesis, and ultimately, a surgical cardiac window performed by cardiothoracic surgery.  The other shock types (Choices A, B, D) do not describe this patient’s presentation.  Please see the chart below for further description of the different shock types and therapies.

 

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References

Cite this article as: Joseph Ciano, USA, "Question Of The Day #54," in International Emergency Medicine Education Project, September 10, 2021, https://iem-student.org/2021/09/10/question-of-the-day-54/, date accessed: September 21, 2023

Question Of The Day #53

question of the day
~ Joseph Ciano, USA ~ Leave a comment

Which of the following is the most likely cause for this patient’s condition?

  • A) Increased systemic vascular resistance (SVR)
  • B) Occult hemorrhage
  • C) Damage to the sympathetic nervous system
  • D) Tension pneumothorax

This patient endured a high-speed motor vehicle accident, arrives with hypotension and bradycardia, and has a C6 vertebral body fracture on imaging.  These details support a diagnosis of neurogenic shock, a type of distributive shock.

Shock is an emergency medical state characterized by cardiovascular or circulatory failure.  Shock prevents peripheral tissues from receiving adequate perfusion, resulting in organ dysfunction and failure.  Shock can be categorized as hypovolemic, distributive, obstructive, or cardiogenic.  The different categories of shock are defined by their underlying cause (i.e., sepsis, hemorrhage, pulmonary embolism, etc.) and their hemodynamics which sometimes overlap.  The diagnosis of shock is largely clinical and supported by the history, vital signs, and physical exam.  Additional studies, such as laboratory investigations, bedside ultrasound, and imaging tests help narrow down the type of shock, potential triggers, and guide management.  The chart below details the categories of shock, each category’s hemodynamics, potential causes, and treatments.  

Neurogenic shock is caused by spinal cord damage above the T6 level.  Unlike other types of shock, neurogenic shock is characterized by hypotension and bradycardia (not tachycardia).  These vital sign abnormalities are caused by damage to sympathetic nervous system (Choice C).  Neurogenic shock has decreased systemic vascular resistance (warm extremities), not increased systemic vascular resistance (cool extremities) (Choice A).  Occult hemorrhage (Choice B) is always a concern in a trauma patient.  However, this would present with findings of hypovolemic/hemorrhagic shock (tachycardia, hypotension, cool extremities).  Tension pneumothorax (Choice D) is also unlikely as the patient has clear bilateral lung sounds on exam.  The best answer is Choice C.

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References

Cite this article as: Joseph Ciano, USA, "Question Of The Day #53," in International Emergency Medicine Education Project, September 3, 2021, https://iem-student.org/2021/09/03/question-of-the-day-53/, date accessed: September 21, 2023

Question Of The Day #52

question of the day
~ Joseph Ciano, USA ~ Leave a comment

Which of the following is the most appropriate next step in management for this patient’s condition?

  • A) IV normal saline
  • B) IV diphenhydramine
  • C) IM epinephrine
  • D) Endotracheal intubation

This patient has anaphylactic shock, which falls under the category of distributive shock.  Anaphylactic shock is an acutely life-threatening type of allergic reaction that if left untreated, can progress to airway edema, asphyxiation, and death.  Exposure to a known or unknown allergen is the trigger for anaphylaxis.  Diagnosis of this condition requires the below criteria to be met:

  1. Acute onset of skin or mucosal changes (i.e., urticaria, tongue or lip swelling) AND hypotension or respiratory compromise (i.e., wheezing).

OR

  1. Dysfunction of two or more body systems after exposure to a presumed allergen:
    1. Skin/mucosa (i.e., urticaria, swelling of tongue or lips)
    2. Pulmonary (i.e., wheezing)
    3. Cardiovascular (i.e., hypotension)
    4. Gastrointestinal (i.e., vomiting or diarrhea)
    5. End-organ dysfunction

Management of anaphylaxis requires proper evaluation of the patient’s airway, respiratory status, and hemodynamics (“ABCs”).  Mainstays of therapy are intramuscular epinephrine (0.3mg in adults) and IV hydration.  Administration of epinephrine is a time sensitive and life-saving intervention.  Antihistamines, nebulized albuterol or salbutamol, and steroids are additional therapies that are commonly given.  Steroids are thought to prevent recurrent anaphylactic reactions, however, there is little data to support this.  Patients are typically monitored for 4-6 hours after administration of epinephrine to observe for changes in clinical status or the need for additional doses of epinephrine.  Patients who remain stable or improve after this observation period are able to be discharged home with a prescription for an epinephrine injector in the event of future anaphylaxis episodes. 

Intravenous normal saline (Choice A) and diphenhydramine (Choice B) are important therapies to administer in this patient, but intramuscular epinephrine (Choice C) is the most time-sensitive initial therapy to administer.  Without treatment, airway edema may progress and require endotracheal intubation (Choice D).  The patient’s clear voice and lack of stridor indicate that the patient does not need immediate intubation. 

Correct Answer: C

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References

Cite this article as: Joseph Ciano, USA, "Question Of The Day #52," in International Emergency Medicine Education Project, August 27, 2021, https://iem-student.org/2021/08/27/question-of-the-day-52/, date accessed: September 21, 2023

Question Of The Day #51

question of the day
~ Joseph Ciano, USA ~ Leave a comment
Which of the following is the most likely cause for the patient’s condition?
  • A) Hypovolemic shock
  • B) Distributive shock
  • C) Obstructive shock
  • D) Cardiogenic shock

This patient is in a shock state caused by left-sided pyelonephritis.

Shock is an emergency medical state characterized by cardiovascular or circulatory failure.  Shock prevents peripheral tissues from receiving adequate perfusion, resulting in organ dysfunction and failure.  Shock can be categorized as hypovolemic, distributive, obstructive, or cardiogenic.  The different categories of shock are defined by their underlying cause (i.e., sepsis, hemorrhage, pulmonary embolism, etc.) and their hemodynamics which sometimes overlap.  The diagnosis of shock is largely clinical and supported by the history, vital signs, and physical exam.  Additional studies, such as laboratory investigations, bedside ultrasound, and imaging tests help narrow down the type of shock, potential triggers, and guide management.  The chart below details the categories of shock, each category’s hemodynamics, potential causes, and treatments.   

The patient’s signs, symptoms, physical exam, and urine studies point towards an infectious etiology.  This patient is in septic shock, which is considered a type of distributive shock (Choice B).  Hypovolemic shock (Choice A), obstructive shock (Choice C), and cardiogenic shock (Choice D) are caused by other conditions reflected in the above table. 

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References

Cite this article as: Joseph Ciano, USA, "Question Of The Day #51," in International Emergency Medicine Education Project, August 20, 2021, https://iem-student.org/2021/08/20/question-of-the-day-51/, date accessed: September 21, 2023

Question Of The Day #50

question of the day
~ Joseph Ciano, USA ~ Leave a comment

Which of the following is the most appropriate next step in management for this patient’s condition?

  • A) IV Physostigmine
  • B) IV Potassium iodide
  • C) IV Propranolol
  • D) PO Propylthiouracil (PTU)

This patient presents to the Emergency Department with altered mental status.  This presenting symptom can be due to a large variety of etiologies, including hypoglycemia, sepsis, toxic ingestions, electrolyte abnormalities, stroke, and more.  The management and evaluation of a patient with altered mental status depends on the primary assessment of the patient (“ABCs”, or Airway, Breathing, Circulation) to identify any acute life-threatening conditions that need to be managed emergently, the history, and the physical examination.  One mnemonic that may help in remembering the many causes of altered mental status is “AEIOUTIPS”.  The table below outlines this mnemonic.

ALTERED MENTAL STATUS

This patient arrives hyperthermic, tachycardic in atrial fibrillation, diaphoretic, and altered with psychotic behavior.  Thyroid storm, the most severe manifestation of hyperthyroidism, should always be on the differential diagnosis in patients with fever and altered mental status.  Other considerations are sepsis, sympathomimetic overdose, anticholinergic overdose, serotonin syndrome, and pheochromocytoma. 

This patient has thyroid storm, a life-threatening endocrine emergency that requires prompt recognition and treatment.  Symptoms of thyroid storm include altered mental status, psychosis, seizures, coma, tachycardia, atrial fibrillation, high-output heart failure, dyspnea, vomiting, diarrhea, weight loss, and anterior neck enlargement.  Severe hyperthyroidism should have a low-undetectable TSH level with elevated T3/T4 levels, but in acute illness these levels may be unreliable.  For this reason, the diagnosis and treatment of thyroid storm should be based on clinical grounds.

An anticholinergic toxidrome can appear similar to this patient with tachycardia, hypertension, agitation, and altered mental status.  A key differentiating factor is diaphoresis.  Patients with anticholinergic ingestions should have dry skin, not wet skin. The treatment for anticholinergic toxicity is benzodiazepines and IV physostigmine (Choice A) if symptoms are unresponsive to benzodiazepines.  Physostigmine is not the best next step in this scenario. 

Treatment of thyroid storm is algorithmic.  First, beta blockade (Choice C) should be given to control the heart rate and block T4 to T3 conversion, next anti-thyroid medications (Methimazole or Propylthiouracil (Choice D)) should be given to block thyroid hormone synthesis, and lastly corticosteroids and inorganic iodine (Choice B) can be given to block release of stored thyroid hormone.  The best next step in managing this patient with thyroid storm is administration of IV Propranolol (Choice C).  Propranolol helps manage the tachycardia, systemic symptoms, and also inhibits conversion of T4 to T3. 

 Correct Answer: C

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References

Cite this article as: Joseph Ciano, USA, "Question Of The Day #50," in International Emergency Medicine Education Project, August 13, 2021, https://iem-student.org/2021/08/13/question-of-the-day-50/, date accessed: September 21, 2023

Question Of The Day #49

question of the day
~ Joseph Ciano, USA ~ Leave a comment
Which of the following is the most likely cause of this patient’s condition?
  • A) Sympathomimetic toxicity
  • B) Heat exhaustion
  • C) Heat stroke
  • D) Thyroid storm

This patient presents to the Emergency Department with altered mental status.  This presenting symptom can be due to a large variety of etiologies, including hypoglycemia, sepsis, toxic ingestions, electrolyte abnormalities, stroke, and more.  The management and evaluation of a patient with altered mental status depends on the primary assessment of the patient (“ABCs”, or Airway, Breathing, Circulation) to identify any acute life-threatening conditions that need to be managed emergently, the history, and the physical examination.  One mnemonic that may help in remembering the many causes of altered mental status is “AEIOUTIPS”.  The table below outlines this mnemonic.

ALTERED MENTAL STATUS

Hyperthermia (or hypothermia) can cause altered mental status.  This patient arrives with altered mental status, severe hyperthermia, tachycardia, tachypnea, and hypotension.  The history of the patient running outside for exercise should raise concern for hyperthermia related to excess heat production due to overexertion.  This should narrow the differential diagnoses to heat exhaustion (Choice B) and heat stroke (Choice C).  Both heat exhaustion and heat stroke are marked by hyperthermia with temperatures often over 40ᵒC. Additional symptoms include weakness, nausea, vomiting, myalgias, syncope, and headache.  The differentiating factor between heat exhaustion and heat stroke is altered mental status and sweating.  Patients with heat exhaustion lack altered mental status and should still be able to thermoregulate through sweating.  On the contrary, heat stroke patients are more severely ill as they have altered mental status and can no longer thermoregulate with sweating.  The treatment in both conditions should be early and aggressive cooling measures.  This includes full body immersion in an ice bath, removal of clothes, and cold IV fluids.  Internal cooling with gastric, bladder, pleural, or peritoneal lavage with cold fluids can be done on more sick patients.  Antipyretic medications, like NSAIDs and paracetamol, have no benefit in patients with severe hyperthermia.  Evaluation for rhabdomyolysis, kidney failure, liver failure, sepsis, or other organ dysfunction should also be a part of the evaluation of hyperthermic patients.

Sympathomimetic toxicity (Choice A) is possible, but less likely as the skin is dry and the history of exercise outdoors.  Sympathomimetic toxicity manifests as diaphoresis, tachycardia, hypertension, hyperthermia, and sometimes altered mental status.  Thyroid storm (Choice D) is another possibility.  This diagnosis can also present with similar vital signs, hyperthermia, and altered mental status.  Again, the history of outdoor exercise should point more towards heat exhaustion vs heat stroke.

The diagnosis of this patient is heat stroke (Choice C) as he has altered mental status and lacks wet skin.

Correct Answer: C

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References

Cite this article as: Joseph Ciano, USA, "Question Of The Day #49," in International Emergency Medicine Education Project, August 6, 2021, https://iem-student.org/2021/08/06/question-of-the-day-49/, date accessed: September 21, 2023

Question Of The Day #48

question of the day
~ Joseph Ciano, USA ~ Leave a comment

Which of the following is the most likely cause of this patient’s condition?

  • A) Hypercarbic respiratory failure
  • B) Hypoxic respiratory failure
  • C) Opioid overdose
  • D) Sepsis

This patient presents to the Emergency Department with altered mental status.  This presenting symptom can be due to a large variety of etiologies, including hypoglycemia, sepsis, toxic ingestions, electrolyte abnormalities, stroke, and more.  The management and evaluation of a patient with altered mental status depends on the primary assessment of the patient (“ABCs”, or Airway, Breathing, Circulation) to identify any acute life-threatening conditions that need to be managed emergently, the history, and the physical examination.  One mnemonic that may help in remembering the many causes of altered mental status is “AEIOUTIPS”.  The table below outlines this mnemonic.

ALTERED MENTAL STATUS

The first step in managing this patient should be to treat the hypoxia with supplemental oxygen.  Prolonged hypoxia is dangerous and if left untreated, can cause brain damage.  Hypoxia can cause altered mental status, however, when this patient’s hypoxia is resolved, she remains somnolent and altered.  This should raise concern over an alternative etiology for the patient’s condition.      

The arterial blood gas demonstrates a low pH (acidosis), normal paO2, elevated paCO2 (hypercarbia), and a normal HCO3 (no metabolic compensation for acidosis).  The final interpretation of the ABG would be an acute respiratory acidosis without metabolic compensation.  Acute elevations of pCO2 can manifest as somnolence and altered mental status as seen in this patient.  This is known as hypercarbic or hypercapnic respiratory failure (Choice A).  This condition is caused by the inability to exhale CO2.  Risk factors include obstructive lung diseases (i.e., COPD), obesity, and obstructive sleep apnea.  Treatment involves treatment of hypoxia with supplemental oxygen, non-invasive positive pressure ventilation (i.e., BIPAP, CPAP, High Flow Nasal Cannula), and treatment of the underlying cause.

The patient’s arterial blood gas does not show hypoxic respiratory failure (Choice B).  Since treatment of the patient’s hypoxia does not improve the patient’s mental status, hypercarbic respiratory failure is more likely the underlying cause of the patient’s condition.  Opioid overdose (Choice C) can cause a similar ABG and patient presentation.  The normal size pupils and absent history of drug abuse makes this diagnosis less likely. Sepsis (Choice D) can trigger changes in mental status and cause respiratory failure, however, the absence of infectious symptoms and the presence of obesity and COPD support hypercarbic respiratory failure as the more likely underlying cause. 

Correct Answer: A

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References

Cite this article as: Joseph Ciano, USA, "Question Of The Day #48," in International Emergency Medicine Education Project, July 30, 2021, https://iem-student.org/2021/07/30/question-of-the-day-48/, date accessed: September 21, 2023