Category: Circulation

Out of Proportion: Acute Leg Pain

~ J. Austin Lee, USA ~ Leave a comment

Case Presentation

A 48-year-old male, with history of hypertension and diabetes and prior intravenous drug use (now on methadone) presents with acute onset right leg pain from his calf to the ankle, that woke him from sleep overnight. The pain has been constant, with no modifying or relieving factors. He hasn’t taken anything other than his daily dose of methadone. He hasn’t had any fevers or chills and denies any recent trauma or injuries.

Any thoughts on what else you might want to ask or know?

  • Any recent travel or prolonged immobilization?
  • Have you ever had a blood clot?
  • Are you on any blood thinners?
  • Have you used IV drugs recently?
  • Any numbness or weakness in your leg?
  • Any associated rash or color change?
  • Any back pain or abdominal pain? Any bowel or bladder incontinence?
  • Any recent antibiotics (or other medication changes)?
  • Have you ever had anything like this before?
[all of these are negative/normal]

Pause here -- what is your initial differential diagnosis looking like?

  • Deep vein thrombosis
  • Superficial vein thrombosis
  • Pyomyositis
  • Necrotizing fasciitis
  • Muscle sprain or tear
  • Arterial thromboembolism
  • Bakers cyst
  • Achilles tendonitis, Achilles tendon rupture

What are some key parts of your targeted physical exam?

  • VITAL SIGNS! [BP was slightly hypertensive, and he is slightly tachycardic, normothermic]
  • Neurologic exam of the affected extremity (motor and sensory)
  • Vascular exam of the affected extremity (femoral/popliteal/posterior tibialis/dorsalis pedis)
  • Musculoskeletal exam including ranging the hip, knee, ankle and palpating throughout the entire leg
  • Skin exam for signs of injury or rashes etc.
  • Consider a cardiopulmonary and abdominal exam, particularly the lower abdomen

On this patient’s exam, he was overall uncomfortable appearing and had slight tachycardia (110s, EKG shows normal sinus rhythm), normal cardiopulmonary exam, normal abdominal exam. He had a 2+ right femoral pulse and faintly palpable DP pulse that had a good biphasic waveform on doppler. His hip/knee/ankle all have painless range of motion. The compartments are soft in the upper and lower leg. He does have some diffuse calf tenderness and the medial aspect feels slightly cool compared to the contralateral side, but his foot is warm and well perfused. There isn’t any spot that is most tender. There is no rash, no crepitus, no bullae or bruising or other evidence of injury.

What diagnostic studies would you like to send?

  • CBC, BMP
  • CPK, lactate
  • DVT ultrasound?
  • Anything else?

What treatments would you like to provide?

  • Analgesia (mutli-modal)?
  • Maybe a bolus of IV fluids to help with the tachycardia?

The patient is having a lot of pain despite already getting NSAIDs, acetaminophen, and a dose of morphine. You decide to re-medicate the patient with more morphine and send him for DVT ultrasound. As soon as he gets back, he’s frustrated that you still haven’t treated his pain “at all” and he really does look uncomfortable and in a lot of pain.  You start to wonder if he’s faking it giving his history of IV drug use.

His DVT ultrasound comes back as normal. The lab work is also coming back and unrevealing. A normal CBC, metabolic panel, normal CPK, normal lactate. His pain is not really improving. You reexamine the leg, and the exam is unchanged. It really seems like his pain is out of proportion to the exam.

Pain is out of proportion to the exam should catch your attention every time. While we always need to keep malingering and less emergent causes for pain that seems to be more than expected in the back of our minds. But! Several emergent diagnoses have patients presenting in pain in a way that doesn’t fit what you can objectively identify as a cause. Diagnoses like compartment syndrome and mesenteric ischemia can be erroneously dismissed by emergency providers, and it is crucial you don’t just stop looking for the cause of pain out of proportion. In fact, it’s important you dig in deeper and rule out all potentially life and limb threatening causes.

In this case, the pain was recalcitrant to multiple doses of IV opiates and several other modes of treatment. The patient was getting so frustrated that he pulled out his IV and threatened to leave the ED. After talking with him further, he agreed to stay and a new IV was placed, more pain medication given, and a CTA with lower extremity run-off was performed, which showed the acute thrombus of the proximal popliteal artery, just below the level of the knee.

He was started on a heparin infusion and vascular surgery was consulted; the patient was admitted from the ED and taken for thrombectomy. No source of embolism was identified, and his occlusion was presumed to be thrombotic (most commonly from a ruptured atheromatous plaque leading to activation of the coagulation cascade), with particular attention to his history of diabetes and hypertension raising his risk for this. He had a fair amount of collateralization from other arteries around the occlusion, such that his foot wasn’t cold, and he had a doppler-able DP pulse. 

Remember

Go with your gut and don’t minimize pain that is out of proportion to the exam. Keep hunting for a reasonable explanation or you may miss a life or limb threatening cause of an atypical emergency presentation.

Further Reading

Deep Vein Thrombosis (DVT)

July 14, 2018 No Comments

by Elif Dilek Cakal Case Presentation An 85-year-old woman, with a history of congestive heart failure, presented with right leg pain and swelling of 2

Read More »

Acute Mesenteric Ischemia

July 1, 2018 No Comments

by Rabind Antony Charles Case Presentation A 75-year-old woman presents to your Emergency Department (ED) with diffuse abdominal pain for the past day, associated with

Read More »

Abdominal Pain

April 29, 2018 2 Comments

by Shaza Karrar Case Presentation A 39-year-old female presented to the emergency department (ED) complaining of right-lower-quadrant (RLQ) pain; pain duration was for 1-day, associated

Read More »
Cite this article as: J. Austin Lee, USA, "Out of Proportion: Acute Leg Pain," in International Emergency Medicine Education Project, October 18, 2021, https://iem-student.org/2021/10/18/acute-leg-pain/, date accessed: May 4, 2024

Cryptic Shock – Identifying the Unseen (PART 1)

~ Gayatri Lekshmi Madhavan, India ~ Leave a comment

Case Presentation

A 68-year-old man presented to the Emergency Department with complaints of breathing difficulty and fever for three days. The patient is a known diabetic and hypertensive.

After detailed history taking, clinical examination, and radiological workup, the patient was diagnosed with right-sided lobar pneumonia (Community-acquired) and immediately started on intravenous antibiotics. In addition, necessary cultures and blood samples were taken for evaluation.

At the time of presentation, his vitals were HR – 92/min, BP – 130/70mmHg, RR – 30/min, SpO2 – 90% with RA à 96% with 2L O2. He underwent bladder catheterization.

During the 1st hour in the ER, the patient had a very low urine output, which continued for the next few hours. Lactate levels were more than 4mmol/L.

Based on the symptoms, oliguria, and hyperlactatemia, the patient was diagnosed to have sepsis and was initiated on fluid resuscitation. After 2 hours, the patient remained oliguric still, and his BP declined to 120/70mmHg.

After 6 hours, the patient’s BP became 110/60mmHg (MAP – 77). He became anuric and developed altered sensorium. Since he did not meet the criteria of septic shock, he was continued on IV fluids and antibiotics.

After 12 hours, the BP became 80/40mmHg (MAP – 63mmHg) à developed Multiorgan Dysfunction Syndrome. He was then started on vasopressors and mechanical ventilation.

By day 3, the patient further deteriorated and went into cardiac arrest. ROSC was not achieved.

Case Analysis

The treatment initiated was based on protocols like Surviving Sepsis Guidelines and Septic Shock management. So how did the process fail in order to adequately resuscitate this patient? Could something have been done more differently?

The case you read above is a very common scenario. Approximately 30% of the people coming to the ER are hypertensive, and around 10% have diabetes mellitus. They form a huge population, among whom the incidence of any other disease increases their morbidity and early mortality.

Before we delve into the pathology in these patients, let us look at the basic definitions of shock/hypotension.

  • SBP < 90mmHg
  • MAP < 65 mmHg
  • Decrease in SBP > 40mmHg
  • Organ Dysfunction
  • Hyperlactatemia
  • Shock: A state of circulatory insufficiency that creates an imbalance between tissue oxygen supply (delivery) and demand (consumption), resulting in end-organ dysfunction.
  • Septic Shock: Adult patients can be identified using the clinical criteria of hypotension requiring the use of vasopressors to maintain MAP of 65mmHg or greater and having a serum lactate level greater than 2 mmol/L persisting after adequate fluids resuscitation.
  • Cryptic Shock: Presence of hyperlactatemia (or systemic hypoperfusion) in a case of sepsis with normotension.

Based on all the information given above;

  1. what do you think was wrong with our patient?
  2. What kind of shock did he have?
  3. Could we have managed him any other way?
  4. When should we have started inotropes?
  5. Did the fact that he was hypertensive and diabetic have to do with his early deterioration? If so, how?
  6. When did the patient-first develop signs of shock?
  7. What are the different signs and symptoms of shock, and how are they recognized in the ER?

Keep your answers ready… 

Part 2 of Cryptic Shock Series – Vascular Pathology and What is considered ‘Shock’ in Hypertensive patients

Part 3 of Cryptic Shock Series – Individualised BP management

Part 4 of Cryptic Shock Series – Latest Trends

References and Further Reading

  1. Ranzani OT, Monteiro MB, Ferreira EM, Santos SR, Machado FR, Noritomi DT; Grupo de Cuidados Críticos Amil. Reclassifying the spectrum of septic patients using lactate: severe sepsis, cryptic shock, vasoplegic shock and dysoxic shock. Rev Bras Ter Intensiva. 2013 Oct-Dec;25(4):270-8. doi: 10.5935/0103-507X.20130047.
  2. Singer M, Deutschman CS, Seymour CW, Shankar-Hari M, Annane D, Bauer M, Bellomo R, Bernard GR, Chiche JD, Coopersmith CM, Hotchkiss RS, Levy MM, Marshall JC, Martin GS, Opal SM, Rubenfeld GD, van der Poll T, Vincent JL, Angus DC. The Third International Consensus Definitions for Sepsis and Septic Shock (Sepsis-3). JAMA. 2016 Feb 23;315(8):801-10. doi: 10.1001/jama.2016.0287.
  3. Shankar-Hari M, Phillips GS, Levy ML, Seymour CW, Liu VX, Deutschman CS, Angus DC, Rubenfeld GD, Singer M; Sepsis Definitions Task Force. Developing a New Definition and Assessing New Clinical Criteria for Septic Shock: For the Third International Consensus Definitions for Sepsis and Septic Shock (Sepsis-3). JAMA. 2016 Feb 23;315(8):775-87. doi: 10.1001/jama.2016.0289.
  4. Education Resources – Sepsis Trust
  5. The Research of Predicting Septic Shock – International Emergency Medicine Education Project (iem-student.org)
  6. Sepsis – International Emergency Medicine Education Project (iem-student.org)
  7. Empiric Antibiotics for Sepsis in the ED Infographics – International Emergency Medicine Education Project (iem-student.org)
  8. Sepsis – An Overview and Update – International Emergency Medicine Education Project (iem-student.org)
Cite this article as: Gayatri Lekshmi Madhavan, India, "Cryptic Shock – Identifying the Unseen (PART 1)," in International Emergency Medicine Education Project, October 4, 2021, https://iem-student.org/2021/10/04/cryptic-shock/, date accessed: May 4, 2024

Defibrillator: Clear!

Defibrillator clear
~ Jule Santos, Brasil ~ Leave a comment

So, this is your first day at your internship rotation in the Emergency Department. You see some movement in the resuscitation room, and someone shouts: CODE!

Then, you approach the team, excited to learn and help with cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR). The attending physician looks at you and asks: Do you know how to use the defibrillator?

What would your answer be?

Knowing the main functions of the defibrillator is essential but not enough; you need to get used to the model in your hospital to be able to help safely with an emergency.

Defibrillators are devices used to apply electrical energy manually or automatically. Their use is indicated for electrical cardioversion, defibrillation or as a transcutaneous pacemaker.

Later that day, another patient presents with unstable atrial fibrillation (AFib).

The attending suggests cardioverting the patient. Do you know how to prepare the defibrillator?

Defibrillation versus cardioversion

Both defibrillation and cardioversion are techniques in which an electrical current is applied to the patient, through a defibrillator, to reverse a cardiac arrhythmia.

Defibrillation

Defibrillation is a non-synchronized electrical discharge applied to the chest, which aims to depolarize all myocardial muscle fibres, thus literally restarting the heart, allowing the sinoatrial node to resume the generation and control of the heart rhythm, and reversing the severe arrhythmias. It is indicated for pulseless ventricular tachycardia and ventricular fibrillation during CPR.

Electrical Cardioversion

Electrical cardioversion is the application of shock in a synchronized way to ensure the electric discharge is released in the R wave, that is, in the refractory period because accidental delivery of the shock during the vulnerable period, that is, the T wave, can trigger VF. It is reserved for severe arrhythmias in unstable patients with a pulse. It can usually be an elective procedure.

Special Situations

Digital Intoxication

Digital intoxication can present with any type of tachyarrhythmia or bradyarrhythmia. Cardioversion in this situation is a relative contraindication, as digital makes the heart sensitive to electrical stimulation. Before considering cardioversion, correct all electrolyte imbalances, otherwise, the cardioversion can degenerate the rhythm to a VF.

Pacemaker / Implantable cardioverter-defibrillator (ICD)

Cardioversion can be performed, but with care. The inadequate technique can damage the generator, the conductive system, or the heart muscle, leading to dysfunction of the device. The blades must be positioned at least 12 cm away from the generator, preferably in the anteroposterior position. The lowest possible electrical charge must be used.

Pregnancy

Cardioversion can be used safely during pregnancy. The fetal beat should be monitored throughout the procedure.

Things To Consider

Keep your devices tested!

Working in the ED is not easy. This is the place where organization and preparation should be routine. Constant checking of materials and operation of the equipment must be the rule because the smallest detail can cause a difference in saving a life.

During adversity, it is necessary to remain calm, trying to not affect the reasoning and disposition of the team. It is an arduous job, it takes practice and a lot of effort. Errors can only be corrected after they are recognized and must have the right time to be exposed. It happens.

There is no time for despair, yelling and stress when it comes to CPR.

No conductive gel, what can we do?

The main guidelines regarding the use of the conductive gel used in the defibrillator paddles are:

  • Using the proper gel for this purpose is essential. The gel is an electrically conductive material that decreases the resistance to the flow of electric current between the paddle and the chest wall. The absence of conductive material can lead to the production of an arc that causes burns in the patient and the risk of explosion if there is an oxygen source very close, among others.
  • Avoid the use of gauze soaked in saline solution, as the excess serum can cause burns on the patient’s skin, but it is a reasonable option, in an emergency
  • Do not use the ultrasound gel
  • The preference is to use adhesive paddles that already come with their own conductive gel (but this is rare in Brazil).

Location recommended by Advanced Cardiac Life Support (ACLS)

Antero-lateral

One paddle is placed on the right side of the sternum, right below the clavicle and the other laterally where the cardiac appendix would be in the anterior or medial axillary line (V5-V6).

Adhesive paddles can also be placed in an anteroposterior position: The anterior one is placed in the cardiac appendage or precordial region, and the posterior one is placed on the back in the right or left infrascapular region.

During the shock, the provider must ensure that no one is in contact with the patient. A force of approximately 8k must be used to increase the contact of the paddles with the chest. Do not allow a continuous flow of oxygen over the patient’s chest to avoid accidents with sparks.

Complications

  • Electric arc (when electricity travels through the air between the electrodes and can cause explosive noises, burns and impair current delivery)
  • Electrical injuries in spectators
  • Risk of explosion if there is a continuous flow of oxygen during the shock
  • Burning of the skin by repeated shocks
  • Myocardial injury and post-defibrillation arrhythmias and myocardial stunning
  • Skeletal muscle injury
  • Fracture of thoracic vertebrae

References and Further Reading

  1. Sunde, K., Jacobs, I., Deakin, C. D., Hazinski, M. F., Kerber, R. E., Koster, R. W., Morrison, L. J., Nolan, J. P., Sayre, M. R., & Defibrillation Chapter Collaborators (2010). Part 6: Defibrillation: 2010 international consensus on cardiopulmonary resuscitation and emergency cardiovascular care science with treatment recommendations. Resuscitation, 81 Suppl 1, e71–e85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resuscitation.2010.08.025
  2. Panchal, A. R., Bartos, J. A., Cabañas, J. G., Donnino, M. W., Drennan, I. R., Hirsch, K. G., Kudenchuk, P. J., Kurz, M. C., Lavonas, E. J., Morley, P. T., O’Neil, B. J., Peberdy, M. A., Rittenberger, J. C., Rodriguez, A. J., Sawyer, K. N., Berg, K. M., & Adult Basic and Advanced Life Support Writing Group (2020). Part 3: Adult Basic and Advanced Life Support: 2020 American Heart Association Guidelines for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care. Circulation, 142(16_suppl_2), S366–S468. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIR.0000000000000916
  3. Ionmhain, U. N. (2020). Defibrillation Basics. Life in The Fastlane. Retrieved April 26, 2020, from https://litfl.com/defibrillation-basics/
  4. Paradis, N. A., Halperin, H. R., Kern, K. B., Wenzel, V., & Chamberlain, D. A. (Eds.). (2007). Cardiac arrest: the science and practice of resuscitation medicine. Cambridge University Press.
  5. Nickson, C. (2020). Defibrillation Pads and Paddles. Life in The Fastlane. Retrieved April 26, 2020, from https://litfl.com/defibrillation-pads-and-paddles/
Cite this article as: Jule Santos, Brasil, "Defibrillator: Clear!," in International Emergency Medicine Education Project, August 9, 2021, https://iem-student.org/2021/08/09/defibrillator-clear/, date accessed: May 4, 2024

Question Of The Day #30

question of the day
~ Joseph Ciano, USA ~ Leave a comment
qod30

Which of the following is the most appropriate next step in management for this patient?

  • A) Terminate all resuscitative efforts due to medical futility
  • B) Initiate vasopressors
  • C) Prepare for Targeted Temperature Management
  • D) Order CT scan of head for possible Intracranial bleeding

This patient arrives to the Emergency department with the return of spontaneous circulation (ROSC) from a ventricular fibrillation cardiac arrest. His regaining of pulses was likely due to his limited downtime, prompt initiation of CPR, and prompt diagnosis and treatment of ventricular fibrillation with electrical defibrillation. Important elements of emergency post-ROSC care include avoiding hypotension, hypoxia, hyperthermia, and hypo or hyperglycemia. Maintaining proper perfusion to the brain and peripheral organs is crucial in all ROSC patients. A 12-lead EKG should always be obtained early after ROSC is achieved in order to look for signs of cardiac ischemia. Cardiac catheterization should be considered in all post-ROSC patients, but especially in patients with cardiac arrest from ventricular fibrillation or ventricular tachycardia.

Patients who achieve ROSC can vary markedly in terms of their clinical exam. Some patients may be awake and conversive, while others are comatose and non-responsive. The neurological exam immediately post-ROSC does not predict long-term outcomes, so decisions on prognosis should not be based on these factors in the emergency department. For this reason, resuscitation efforts should not be considered medically futile in this scenario (Choice A). Vasopressors (Choice B) are medications useful in post-ROSC patients who have signs of hemodynamic collapse, such as hypotension. This patient is not hypotensive and does not meet the criteria for initiation of vasopressors. A CT scan of the head (Choice D) is a study to consider in any patient who presents to the emergency department with collapse to evaluate intracranial bleeding (i.e., subarachnoid bleeding). Although not impossible, the history of chest pain before collapse makes brain bleeding a less likely cause of death in this patient. Targeted Temperature Management (Choice C), also known as Therapeutic Hypothermia, is the best next step in this patient’s management.

Targeted Temperature Management involves a controlled lowering of the patient’s body temperature to 32-34ᵒC in the first 24 hours after cardiac arrest. This treatment has been shown to improve neurologic and survival outcomes. The theory behind this treatment is that hypothermia post-ROSC reduces free radical damage and decreases cerebral metabolism. Data behind targeted temperature management shows the greatest benefit in cardiac arrest patients due to ventricular fibrillation, but arrest from ventricular tachycardia, pulseless electrical activity, and asystole may also show benefit. Adverse effects of this treatment include coagulopathy, bradycardia, electrolyte abnormalities (i.e., hypokalemia), and shivering. Important contraindications to this treatment are an awake or alert patient (post-ROSC GCS >6), DNR or DNI status, another reason to explain comatose state (i.e., intracranial bleeding, spinal cord injury), age under 17 years old, a poor functional status prior to the cardiac arrest (i.e., nonverbal, bedbound), or an arrest caused by trauma. Correct Answer: C

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References

 

Cite this article as: Joseph Ciano, USA, "Question Of The Day #30," in International Emergency Medicine Education Project, March 12, 2021, https://iem-student.org/2021/03/12/question-of-the-day-30/, date accessed: May 4, 2024

Question Of The Day #29

question of the day
~ Joseph Ciano, USA ~ Leave a comment
qod29
842 - Wide QRS complex tachycardia

Which of the following is the most appropriate next step in management for this patient?

  • A) Intravenous Amiodarone
  • B) Intravenous Procainamide
  • C) Intravenous Ciprofloxacin
  • D) Intravenous Magnesium Sulfate

This patient presents to the emergency department with seven days of severe vomiting, diarrhea, tachycardia, and borderline hypotension. The clinician should be concerned about dehydration and potential electrolyte derangements induced by the vomiting and diarrhea. Certain electrolyte derangements can put a patient at risk for cardiac dysrhythmias, so ordering a 12-lead EKG is an important step in evaluating any patient with a potential electrolyte disturbance. Dangerous electrolyte disturbances that can predispose a patient to cardiac dysrhythmias include hyperkalemia, hypokalemia, hypomagnesemia, and hypocalcemia. Signs of hyperkalemia on the EKG include peaked T waves, absent or flattened P waves, widened QRS complexes, or a sine wave morphology. Low potassium, magnesium, and calcium can all prolong the QT interval and predispose the patient to polymorphic ventricular tachycardia (Torsades de Pointes). Hypokalemia on EKG may also be associated with a U wave, which is an upward wave that follows the T wave.

This patient’s 12-lead EKG shows a wide-complex tachycardia with QRS complex “twisting” around the isoelectric line and varying QRS amplitudes. These EKG signs, along with the inferred history of severe electrolyte abnormalities, support a diagnosis of Torsades de Pointes (TdP). Another risk factor for TdP is a history of congenital prolonged QT syndromes. Similar to monomorphic ventricular tachycardia, TdP should always be treated with electrical cardioversion if there are any signs of instability (i.e., altered mental status, SBP <90mmHg). A pulseless patient with TdP always necessitates unsynchronized cardioversion, also known as defibrillation. This patient may have briefly syncopized or potentially underwent cardiac arrest. Intravenous Amiodarone (Choice A) and Procainamide (Choice B) are contraindicated in TdP as both of these agents can further prolong the QT interval. These agents can be used in a stable patient with monomorphic ventricular tachycardia. Intravenous Ciprofloxacin (Choice C) is a quinolone antibiotic that is useful for treating infections from gram-negative bacteria. This may be beneficial for this patient, especially if there is a concern for bacterial gastroenteritis. However, quinolone antibiotics also can prolong the QT interval, and this medication will not acutely stabilize this patient. Intravenous Magnesium Sulfate (Choice D) shortens the QT interval and is the preferred therapy for a TdP patient with a pulse. Correct Answer: D

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References

Cite this article as: Joseph Ciano, USA, "Question Of The Day #29," in International Emergency Medicine Education Project, March 5, 2021, https://iem-student.org/2021/03/05/question-of-the-day-29/, date accessed: May 4, 2024

Question Of The Day #28

question of the day
~ Joseph Ciano, USA ~ Leave a comment
qod28

EKG#1

710 - hyperkalemia

EKG#2

855 - bradycardia

Which of the following is the most likely underlying cause for this patient’s condition?

  • A) Ischemic heart disease
  • B) Wolff Parkinson White Syndrome
  • C) Chronic kidney disease
  • D) Anxiety

This patient presents to the emergency department with vague and nonspecific symptoms of nausea, fatigue, and palpitations. The initial EKG (EKG #1) demonstrates a wide-complex tachycardia (QRS >120msec) with a regular rhythm. The differential diagnosis for wide-complex tachyarrhythmias include ventricular tachycardia (monomorphic ventricular tachycardia), torsades de pointes (polymorphic ventricular tachycardia), coarse ventricular fibrillation, supraventricular tachycardias with aberrancy (i.e. underlying Wolf Parkinson White Syndrome or Ventricular Bundle Branch Block), electrolyte abnormalities (i.e., Hyperkalemia), and from medications (i.e., Na channel blocking agents). If the history is unclear or the patient shows signs of instability, Ventricular tachycardia should always be the assumed tachyarrhythmia. This is managed with electrical cardioversion or with medications (i.e., amiodarone, procainamide, lidocaine), depending on the patient’s symptoms and hemodynamic stability.

The prior EKG for the patient (EKG #2) is helpful in showing that the patient does not have a wide QRS complex at baseline. There also are no EKG signs of Wolf Parkinson White Syndrome (Choice B) on EKG #2, making this choice incorrect. Signs of this cardiac pre-excitation syndrome on EKG include a shortened PR interval and a delta wave (slurred upstroke at the beginning of the QRS complex). Anxiety (Choice D) can cause sinus tachycardia and be a symptom associated with any arrhythmia, but it is not the underlying cause for this patient’s bizarre wide-complex tachydysrhythmia. On a closer look, the patient’s EKG (EKG #1) demonstrates tall, peaked T waves in the precordial leads. This supports a diagnosis of hyperkalemia. Other signs of hyperkalemia on EKG include flattened or absent P waves, widened QRS complexes, or a sine wave morphology. A common underlying cause of hyperkalemia is renal disease (Choice C). Ischemic heart disease (Choice A) is a common underlying cause for ventricular tachycardia. Ventricular tachycardia is less likely in this case given the presence of peaked T waves and the lack of fusion beats, capture beats, or signs of AV dissociation on the 12-lead EKG. Correct Answer: C 

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References

  • Brady W.J., & Glass III G.F. (2020). Cardiac rhythm disturbances. Tintinalli J.E., Ma O, Yealy D.M., Meckler G.D., Stapczynski J, Cline D.M., & Thomas S.H.(Eds.), Tintinalli’s Emergency Medicine: A Comprehensive Study Guide, 9e. McGraw-Hill. https://accessmedicine.mhmedical.com/content.aspx?bookid=2353&sectionid=218687685

  • Burns, E. (2020). Ventricular Tachycardia – Monomorphic VT. Life in The Fast Lane. Retrieved from https://litfl.com/ventricular-tachycardia-monomorphic-ecg-library/

Cite this article as: Joseph Ciano, USA, "Question Of The Day #28," in International Emergency Medicine Education Project, February 26, 2021, https://iem-student.org/2021/02/26/question-of-the-day-28/, date accessed: May 4, 2024

Question Of The Day #27

question of the day
~ Joseph Ciano, USA ~ Leave a comment
qod27
756.1 - palpitation - SOB

Which of the following is the most appropriate next step in management for this patient’s condition?

  • A) Intravenous Adenosine
  • B) Valsalva maneuver
  • C) Intravenous Metoprolol
  • D) Intravenous Diltiazem

This patient has a narrow-complex, regular tachycardia that is causing the sensation of palpitations. The clinical history, rapid heart rate, and 12-lead EKG provide enough information to diagnose this patient with supraventricular tachycardia, also known as “SVT.” Supraventricular tachycardias refer to a broad range of arrhythmias, including sinus tachycardia, atrial fibrillation, atrial flutter, multifocal atrial tachycardia, and AV nodal re-entry tachycardia. This scenario specifically depicts an AV nodal re-entry tachycardia (AVNRT). AVNRT is a common type of SVT that can occur spontaneously or is triggered by sympathomimetic agents (i.e., cocaine, amphetamines), caffeine, alcohol, exercise, or beta-2 agonists using in asthma treatment (i.e., albuterol, salbutamol). AVNRTs are narrow-complex tachycardias with rates that range from 120-280bpm. P waves are typically absent in AVNRTs, but rarely they may be present as retrograde inverted P waves located immediately before or after the QRS complex. Symptoms experienced by the AVNRT patient may include pre-syncope, syncope, dizziness, palpitations, anxiety, or mild shortness of breath. Patients with AVNRTs are more likely to be young and female over male.

QRS complexes in AVNRTs are often narrow (<120msec), however, wide QRS complexes may be present in AVNRTs if there is a concurrent bundle branch block or Wolff-Parkinson White Syndrome. AVNRTs are often stable and do not require electric cardioversion. Signs that indicate instability and necessitate cardioversion are hypotension (SBP <90mmHg), altered mental status, or ischemic chest pain (more common if known history of ischemic heart disease). This patient lacks all of these signs and symptoms.

Treatment of AVNRT focuses on restoring the patient to normal sinus rhythm, which leads to resolution of symptoms. First-line medications for AVNRTs are short-acting AV nodal blocking agents, like adenosine (Choice A). Beta-blockers or calcium channel blockers act as second-line agents for patients who do not respond to adenosine. Metoprolol is a beta-blocker (Choice C) and Diltiazem is a calcium channel clocker (Choice D). Prior to any medications, vagal maneuvers should always be attempted first in a stable patient with AVNRT. The Valsalva maneuver (Choice B), or “bearing down,” is a commonly used vagal maneuver in the termination of AVNRTs. Other vagal maneuvers include the carotid massage or the Diving reflex (place bag of ice and water on face). Correct Answer: B

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References

  • Brady W.J., & Glass III G.F. (2020). Cardiac rhythm disturbances. Tintinalli J.E., Ma O, Yealy D.M., Meckler G.D., Stapczynski J, Cline D.M., & Thomas S.H.(Eds.), Tintinalli’s Emergency Medicine: A Comprehensive Study Guide, 9e. McGraw-Hill. https://accessmedicine.mhmedical.com/content.aspx?bookid=2353&sectionid=218687685

  • Burns, E. (2020). Supraventricular Tachycardia (SVT). Life in the Fast Lane. Retrieved from https://litfl.com/supraventricular-tachycardia-svt-ecg-library/

Cite this article as: Joseph Ciano, USA, "Question Of The Day #27," in International Emergency Medicine Education Project, February 19, 2021, https://iem-student.org/2021/02/19/question-of-the-day-27/, date accessed: May 4, 2024

Question Of The Day #26

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~ Joseph Ciano, USA ~ Leave a comment
qod26
38 - atrial fibrillation

Which of the following is the most appropriate next step in management for this patient’s condition?

  • A) Electrical cardioversion
  • B) Intravenous metoprolol
  • C) General observation
  • D) Intravenous adenosine

This patient presents to the emergency department with palpitations, a narrow complex tachycardia (<120msec), and an irregularly irregular rhythm. A close look at this patient’s EKG reveals the absence of discrete P waves and QRS complexes that are spaced at varying distances from each other (most apparent in lead V6). These signs support a diagnosis of Atrial Fibrillation, or “AFib.” Atrial Fibrillation is an arrhythmia characterized by an irregularly irregular rhythm, the absence of P waves with a flat or undulating baseline, and narrow QRS complexes. Wide-QRS complexes may be present in AFib if there is a concurrent bundle branch block or Wolff-Parkinson White Syndrome. AFib is caused by the electric firing of multiple ectopic foci in the atria of the heart. This condition is triggered by a multitude of causes, including ischemic heart disease, valvular heart disease, dilated or hypertrophic cardiomyopathies (likely related to this patient’s congestive heart failure history), sepsis, hyperthyroidism, excess caffeine or alcohol intake, pulmonary embolism, and electrolyte abnormalities.

The main risk in AFib is the creation of thrombi in the atria as they fibrillate, resulting in emboli that travel to the brain and cause a stroke. The CHA2DS2VASc scoring system is used to risk stratify patients and determine if they require anticoagulation to prevent against thrombo-embolic phenomenon (i.e. stroke). This patient has a high CHA2DS2VASc score, so she would require anticoagulation. In addition to anticoagulation, A fib is treated with rate control (i.e. beta blockers or calcium channel blockers), rhythm control (i.e. anti-arrhythmic agents), or electrical cardioversion. Electrical cardioversion (choice A) is typically avoided when symptoms occur greater than 48 hours, since the risk of thrombo-emboli formation is higher in this scenario. An exception to this would be a patient with “unstable” AFib. Signs of instability in any tachyarrhythmia are hypotension, altered mental status, or ischemic chest pain. This patient lacks all of these signs and symptoms. Although this patient lacks signs of instability, this patient’s marked tachycardia should be addressed with medical treatment. General observation (Choice C) is not the best choice for this reason. Intravenous adenosine (Choice D) is the best choice for a patient with supraventricular tachycardia (SVT). This is a narrow-complex AV nodal re-entry tachycardia with rates that range from 120-280bpm. SVT also lacks discrete P waves. A key factor that differentiates A fib from SVT is that SVT has a regular rhythm, while AFib has an irregular rhythm. Intravenous metoprolol (Choice B) is the best treatment option listed in order to decrease the patient’s heart rate.

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References

  • Brady W.J., & Glass III G.F. (2020). Cardiac rhythm disturbances. Tintinalli J.E., Ma O, Yealy D.M., Meckler G.D., Stapczynski J, Cline D.M., & Thomas S.H.(Eds.), Tintinalli’s Emergency Medicine: A Comprehensive Study Guide, 9e. McGraw-Hill. https://accessmedicine.mhmedical.com/content.aspx?bookid=2353&sectionid=218687685
  • Burns, E. (2020) Atrial Fibrillation. Life in The Fast Lane. Retrieved from https://litfl.com/atrial-fibrillation-ecg-library/

 

Cite this article as: Joseph Ciano, USA, "Question Of The Day #26," in International Emergency Medicine Education Project, February 12, 2021, https://iem-student.org/2021/02/12/question-of-the-day-26/, date accessed: May 4, 2024

Question Of The Day #25

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qod25
835 - 3rd degree heart block

Which of the following is the most likely diagnosis of this patient’s condition?

  • A) Sinus bradycardia
  • B) First-Degree AV Block
  • C) Second-Degree AV Block (Mobitz type II)
  • D) Third-Degree AV Block

This patient has marked bradycardia on exam with a borderline low blood pressure. These vital sign abnormalities are likely the cause of the patient’s dizziness. Bradycardia is defined as any heart rate under 60 beats/min. The most common cause of bradycardia is sinus bradycardia (Choice A). Other types of bradycardia include conduction blocks (i.e. type 2 or type 3 AV blocks), junctional rhythms (lack of P waves with slow SA nodal conduction), idioventricular rhythms (wide QRS complex rhythms that originate from the ventricles, not atria), or low atrial fibrillation or atrial flutter. About 80% of all bradycardias are caused by factors external to the cardiac conduction system, such as hypoxia, drug effects (i.e., beta block or calcium channel blocker use or overdose), or acute coronary syndromes.

ecg qod25Sinus bradycardia (Choice A) occurs when the electrical impulse originates from the SA node in the atria. Signs of sinus bradycardia on EKG are the presence of a P wave prior to every QRS complex. This EKG shows P waves prior to each QRS complex, but there are extra P waves that are not followed by QRS complexes. Some P waves are “buried” within QRS complexes or within T waves. The EKG below marks each P wave with a red line and each QRS complex with a blue line.

 

First-degree AV Block (Choice B) is a benign arrhythmia characterized by a prolonged PR interval. This patient’s EKG has variable PR intervals (some prolonged, some normal). This is a result of a more severe AV conduction block. Second-Degree AV Blocks are divided into Mobitz type I and Mobitz Type II. Mobitz type I, also known as Wenckebach, is characterized by a progressive lengthening PR interval followed by a dropped QRS complex. This can be remembered by the phrase, “longer, longer, longer, drop.” Wenckebach is a benign arrhythmia that does not typically require any treatment. Mobitz type II (Choice C) is characterized by a normal PR interval with random intermittent dropping of QRS complexes. This patient’s EKG has consistent spacing between each QRS complex (blue lines) and consistent spacing between each P wave (red lines). However, the P waves and QRS complexes are not associated with each other. This phenomenon is known as AV dissociation. These EKG changes are signs of a complete heart block, also known as Third-Degree AV Block (Choice D). Both Second-Degree AV block- Mobitz type II (Choice C) and Third-Degree AV Block (Choice D) are more serious conduction blocks that require cardiac pacemakers. Correct Answer: D

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References

  • Brady W.J., & Glass III G.F. (2020). Cardiac rhythm disturbances. Tintinalli J.E., Ma O, Yealy D.M., Meckler G.D., Stapczynski J, Cline D.M., & Thomas S.H.(Eds.), Tintinalli’s Emergency Medicine: A Comprehensive Study Guide, 9e. McGraw-Hill. https://accessmedicine.mhmedical.com/content.aspx?bookid=2353&sectionid=218687685
  • Nickson, C. (2020). Heart Block and Conduction Abnormalities. Life in the Fast Lane. Retrieved from https://litfl.com/heart-block-and-conduction-abnormalities/

 

Cite this article as: Joseph Ciano, USA, "Question Of The Day #25," in International Emergency Medicine Education Project, February 5, 2021, https://iem-student.org/2021/02/05/question-of-the-day-25/, date accessed: May 4, 2024

Question Of The Day #24

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qod24
738.1 - Prior ECG before 738.2 - STEMI

Which of the following is the most appropriate next step in management for this patient’s condition?

  • A) Begin transcutaneous pacing
  • B) Begin transvenous pacing
  • C) Administer IV Amiodarone
  • D) Administer IV Metoprolol

This patient is suffering from severe bradycardia with signs of poor cardiac output, shock, and diminished perfusion to the brain. Bradycardia is defined as any heart rate under 60 beats/min. Many individuals may be bradycardic at rest with no danger to the patient (i.e. young patients or athletes). Bradycardia in these scenarios is physiologic and is not associated with difficulty in perfusing the brain and other organs. This patient’s 12-lead EKG shows sinus bradycardia since there is a P wave prior to every QRS complex. Sinus bradycardia is the most common type of bradycardia. Other types of bradycardia include conduction blocks (i.e. type 2 or type 3 AV blocks), junctional rhythms (lack of P waves with slow SA nodal conduction), idioventricular rhythms (wide QRS complex rhythms that originate from the ventricles, not atria), or slow atrial fibrillation or atrial flutter. About 80% of all bradycardias are caused by factors external to the cardiac conduction system, such as hypoxia, drug effects (i.e. beta block or calcium channel blocker use or overdose), or acute coronary syndromes.  

For any patient with a bradyarrhythmia or tachyarrhythmia, it is crucial to determine if the arrythmia is “stable” or “unstable”. Signs that an arrhythmia is unstable include altered mental status, hypotension with systolic blood pressure under 90mmHg, chest pain, or shortness of breath. Patients with a stable arrhythmia can be managed supportively with observation and less invasive medical management. Patients with unstable arrhythmia are managed more aggressively with the use of electricity, often in combination with other medical treatments. This patient has an unstable bradyarrhythmia, given her altered mental status and hypotension. Intravenous metoprolol (Choice D) would make the patient more bradycardic since this medication blocks beta-adrenergic receptors of the heart that control heart rate and contractility. Intravenous Amiodarone (Choice C) is an antiarrhythmic agent used often in wide complex tachyarrhythmias (i.e. Ventricular Tachycardia). Intravenous atropine or epinephrine are agents that can be used in this patient prior to preparing for electric pacing. Transcutaneous pacing (Choice A) should always be attempted prior to Transvenous pacing (Choice B), as Transcutaneous pacing is less invasive and quicker to set up. If Transcutaneous pacing does not result in electrical “capture” or change the heart rate, the next step is Transvenous pacing. Correct Answer: A 

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References

  • Brady W.J., & Glass III G.F. (2020). Cardiac rhythm disturbances. Tintinalli J.E., Ma O, Yealy D.M., Meckler G.D., Stapczynski J, Cline D.M., & Thomas S.H.(Eds.), Tintinalli’s Emergency Medicine: A Comprehensive Study Guide, 9e. McGraw-Hill. https://accessmedicine.mhmedical.com/content.aspx?bookid=2353&sectionid=218687685
  • Burns, E. (2020). Sinus Bradycardia. Life in the Fast Lane. Retrieved from https://litfl.com/sinus-bradycardia-ecg-library/
Cite this article as: Joseph Ciano, USA, "Question Of The Day #24," in International Emergency Medicine Education Project, December 11, 2020, https://iem-student.org/2020/12/11/question-of-the-day-24/, date accessed: May 4, 2024

Question Of The Day #23

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~ Joseph Ciano, USA ~ Leave a comment
qod23
3. PEA

Which of the following is the most appropriate next step in management for this patient’s condition?

  • A) Administer intravenous sodium bicarbonate
  • B) Administer intravenous calcium gluconate
  • C) Administer thrombolytics
  • D) Administer blood products

This patient presented to the emergency department with acute pleuritic chest pain, dyspnea, and experienced a cardiac arrest prior to a detailed physical examination. The cardiac monitor shows a narrow complex sinus rhythm morphology. In the setting of a cardiac arrest and pulselessness, this cardiac rhythm is known as pulseless electric activity (PEA). PEA includes any cardiac rhythm that is not asystole, ventricular fibrillation, or pulseless ventricular tachycardia. The ACLS algorithm divides the management of patients with pulseless ventricular tachycardia (pVT) or ventricular fibrillation (VF) and patients with pulseless electric activity (PEA) or asystole. Assuming adequate staff and medical resources are present, patients with all of these rhythms receive high-quality CPR, IV epinephrine, and airway management. Patients with pVT or VF receive electrical cardioversion, while patients with PEA or asystole do not receive electrical cardioversion. Patients with PEA or asystole generally have a poorer prognosis than those with pVT or VF. Out of hospital cardiac arrests that present to the emergency department with PEA or asystole on initial rhythm have a survival rate of under 3%. The etiology of PEA in cardiac arrest includes a wide variety of causes. A traditional approach to remembering the reversible causes of PEA are the “Hs & Ts”. The list of the “Hs & Ts” along with their individual treatments are listed in the table below.

PEA treatments

Sodium bicarbonate (Choice A) would be the correct choice for a patient whose PEA arrest was caused by severe acidosis. This can occur in severe lactic acidosis (i.e. sepsis), diabetic ketoacidosis, certain toxic ingestions (i.e. iron, salicylates, tricyclic antidepressants), as well as other causes. Calcium gluconate (Choice B) would be the correct choice for a patient whose PEA arrest was caused by hyperkalemia. This can occur in renal failure, in the setting of certain medications, rhabdomyolysis (muscle tissue breakdown), and other causes. Blood products (Choice D) would be the correct choice for a patient whose PEA arrest was due to severe hemorrhage, such as gastrointestinal bleeding or in the setting of traumatic injuries. This patient has symptoms and risk factors for pulmonary embolism, including pleuritic chest pain, dyspnea, and a cancer history. These details make pulmonary embolism the most likely cause of PEA arrest in this scenario. The best treatment for this diagnosis would be thrombolysis (Choice C).

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References

Cite this article as: Joseph Ciano, USA, "Question Of The Day #23," in International Emergency Medicine Education Project, December 4, 2020, https://iem-student.org/2020/12/04/question-of-the-day-23/, date accessed: May 4, 2024

Question Of The Day #22

question of the day
~ Joseph Ciano, USA ~ Leave a comment
qod22
1. VFib

Which of the following is the most appropriate next step in management for this patient’s condition?

  • A) Continue chest compressions
  • B) Perform unsynchronized cardioversion at 200 Joules
  • C) Administer Amiodarone
  • D) Administer Sodium Bicarbonate

This patient presents to the Emergency Department after a cardiac arrest with an unknown medical history. Important components of Basic Life Support (BLS) include early initiation of high-quality CPR at a rate of 100-120 compressions/minute, compressing the chest to a depth of 5 cm (5 inches), providing 2 rescue breaths after every 30 compressions (30:2 ratio), avoiding interruptions to CPR, and allowing for adequate chest recoil after each compression. In the Advanced Cardiovascular Life Support (ACLS) algorithm, intravenous epinephrine is administered every 3-5 minutes and a “pulse check” is performed after every 2 minutes of CPR. The patient’s cardiac rhythm, along with the clinical history, helps decide if the patient should receive additional medications or receive unsynchronized cardioversion (defibrillation, or “electrical shock. The ACLS algorithm divides management in patients with pulseless ventricular tachycardia (pVT) or ventricular fibrillation (VF) and patients with pulseless electric activity (PEA) or asystole.

The cardiac rhythm seen during the pulse check for this patient is ventricular fibrillation. The ACLS algorithm advises unsynchronized cardioversion at 150-200 Joules for patients with pVT or VF. Continuing chest compressions (Choice A) with minimal interruptions is a crucial component of BLS, however, this patient’s cardiac rhythm is shockable. Defibrillation (Choice B) takes precedence over CPR in this scenario. Amiodarone (Choice C) is an antiarrhythmic agent that is recommended in patients with pVT, in addition to unsynchronized cardioversion. This patient has VF, not pVT. Sodium bicarbonate (Choice D) is an alkaline medication that is helpful in cardiac arrests caused by severe acidosis or certain toxins (i.e. salicylates or tricyclic antidepressants). The next best step in this patient scenario would be defibrillation for the patient’s VF (Choice B).

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References

Cite this article as: Joseph Ciano, USA, "Question Of The Day #22," in International Emergency Medicine Education Project, November 27, 2020, https://iem-student.org/2020/11/27/question-of-the-day-22/, date accessed: May 4, 2024