Question Of The Day #40

May 21, 2021April 30, 2021 ~ Joseph Ciano, USA ~ 1 Comment

Which of the following is the most appropriate next step in management for this patient?

Explanation

This elderly patient presents to the emergency department with left lower abdominal pain, constipation, and anorexia. The exam shows fever, tachycardia, and marked left lower quadrant tenderness. Compared to younger patients, abdominal pain in an elderly patient has a higher likelihood of being due to a surgical emergency or from a diagnosis that carries higher mortality. Elderly patients may have more nonspecific associated symptoms that may make it difficult to confirm a dangerous diagnosis without advanced imaging. Additionally, elderly patients do not always have a fever or elevated white blood cells during an abdominal infection. The differential diagnosis of abdominal pain in an elderly patient should be broad and encompass conditions related to many body systems.

The most likely diagnosis for this patient is diverticulitis based on the location of the pain. Features of diverticulitis include left lower quadrant pain, nausea, vomiting, change in bowel habits (diarrhea or constipation), anorexia, fever, and leukocytosis. Right-sided diverticulitis is more common in patients of Asian descent, so these patients may alternatively present with right lower quadrant pain. Treatment for acute diverticulitis includes antibiotics, bowel rest, hydration, increased dietary fiber, and pain management.

Other potential diagnoses to consider for this patient include perforated diverticulitis, abdominal abscess, colitis, bowel obstruction, malignancy, AAA, urinary tract infection, ureterolithiasis, and soft tissue infections. The best next step in the management of this patient is to treat empirically for an abdominal infection with IV hydration, antipyretics, and antibiotics. Sepsis from a gastrointestinal source requires antibiotics that cover both gram-negative and anaerobic bacteria. IV Vancomycin (Choice A) is helpful for skin infections, soft tissue infections, MRSA (Methicillin-resistant Staph aureus) infections, or other infections from gram-positive organisms. Vancomycin would not include coverage for a gastrointestinal source. IV Metronidazole covers anaerobic bacteria, and Ciprofloxacin covers gram-negative bacteria. This makes Choice D the best antibiotic choice for this patient. Other options include IV ampicillin-sulbactam, ampicillin and metronidazole, piperacillin-tazobactam, ticarcillin-clavulanate, or imipenem. A CT scan on the abdomen and pelvis (Choice B) should be performed on this patient (ideally with PO and IV contrast). However, IV hydration and antibiotics are a more important initial step to address the patient’s sepsis. CT scanning is recommended for first-time diverticulitis episodes or if there are alternative diagnoses on the differential. Patients with a history of recurrent diverticulitis who present to the Emergency department with uncomplicated acute diverticulitis are able to be treated empirically with oral antibiotics in the outpatient setting. Ill-appearing patients, have no prior history of diverticulitis or have possible alternative diagnoses should get CT imaging. Emergent colonoscopy (Choice C) is not indicated as part of the Emergency department management of acute diverticulitis. In fact, colonic inflammation or inflamed diverticuli are contraindications to colonoscopy (increased risk of bowel rupture). Correct answer: D

References

Masneri D.A., & O’Brien M (2020). Acute abdominal pain. Tintinalli J.E., & Ma O, & Yealy D.M., & Meckler G.D., & Stapczynski J, & Cline D.M., & Thomas S.H.(Eds.), Tintinalli’s Emergency Medicine: A Comprehensive Study Guide, 9e. McGraw-Hill. https://accessemergencymedicine.mhmedical.com/content.aspx?bookid=2353&sectionid=189592906
McSweeney, W. & Sriath, H. (2017). Diverticular disease practice points. Australian Family Physician. 46(11): 829-832. Retrieved from https://www.racgp.org.au/afp/2017/november/diverticular-disease-practice-points/

Cite this article as: Joseph Ciano, USA, "Question Of The Day #40," in International Emergency Medicine Education Project, May 21, 2021, https://iem-student.org/2021/05/21/question-of-the-day-40/, date accessed: September 24, 2021

Approach to Jaundice in the Emergency Department

May 17, 2021April 7, 2021 ~ Maryam Bagherzadeh, Canada ~ Leave a comment

A 50-year-old male presents to the emergency department (ED) with nausea and vomiting, diminished appetite, and recent changes in his skin color, which he describes as turning “yellow.” This seemed to have worsened over the past few weeks, after which he began to worry and presented to the ED.

The patient’s vital signs are normal. His physical exam is positive for icteric sclerae, jaundice in the face and chest, and hepatomegaly. He is not tender to palpation on the abdomen. The rest of his exam is otherwise normal.

Introduction

Jaundice is not a diagnosis, but a clinical manifestation of an underlying problem, specifically elevated serum bilirubin. Patients with Jaundice present with yellow discoloration of the skin, mucous membranes, and sclera. They can present to the ED with Jaundice in isolation or along with other symptoms. It is the Emergency Physician’s task to evaluate the patient, find the underlying cause, order the appropriate investigation and decide whether the patient requires admission to the hospital and consultation with other physicians.

Normal physiology of bilirubin metabolism

Bilirubin is the end product of heme metabolism. This occurs in three phases: pre-hepatic, hepatic, and post-hepatic phases. Approximately 75-80% of bilirubin comes from the catabolism of red blood cells. Initially, this bilirubin is unconjugated, which is insoluble in water and soluble in fat. Therefore, unconjugated bilirubin can easily cross the blood-brain barrier and the placenta [1].

Unconjugated bilirubin is actively transported to the liver by albumin and is conjugated by the enzyme glucuronosyltransferase. Subsequently, conjugated bilirubin is either stored in bile in the gallbladder or excreted through the biliary tract, where it eventually reaches the intestines and is excreted from the body [1,2].

Pathophysiology and differential diagnosis

The classic definition of jaundice is a serum bilirubin level greater than 2.5 to 3 mg per dL (42.8 to 51.3 µmol per L), with a clinical presentation of yellow skin and sclera [1]. As described in the above section, bilirubin metabolism occurs in three phases, and dysfunction of any of these steps can lead to jaundice.

Pre-hepatic causes

Unconjugated hyperbilirubinemia or elevated levels of unconjugated bilirubin before it reaches the liver can lead to jaundice. This can occur due to excessive heme metabolism from increased red blood cell breakdown (hemolysis) and the saturation of enzymes that conjugate it. A few underlying etiology for this include hemolytic anemia, sickle cell anemia, spherocytosis, glucose-6-PD deficiency, hemolytic uraemic syndrome, and transfusion reaction [1,3].

Hepatic causes

Any process that impacts liver functioning can lead to jaundice. Some of the hepatic causes of jaundice in adults include viral hepatitis, chronic alcohol consumption, autoimmune diseases such as primary biliary cirrhosis, genetic disorders such as Gilbert syndrome, hereditary metabolic defects such as Dubin-Johnson syndrome, and some drugs that can lead to drug-induced liver disease such as acetaminophen, oral contraceptives, estrogenic and anabolic steroids [4-6].

Post-hepatic causes

Any process that instigates post-hepatic obstruction can lead to jaundice due to elevated levels of conjugated bilirubin. Some of these include cholelithiasis leading to obstruction of the biliary duct system, biliary tract tumors, biliary duct strictures, and jaundice secondary to pancreatitis [1, 7].

History and physical examination

A good history and physical examination of patients presenting with jaundice to the ED is key in their diagnosis.

On history, the patient should be asked about alcohol and drug use, recent travel, sexual contact with a person with known or suspected hepatitis, recent tattoos or body piercings, and previous biliary surgery. A focused review of systems should also be conducted. For example, a history of fever and viral symptoms can point towards viral hepatitis, while the presence of constitutional symptoms such as weight loss and night sweat may point towards a malignancy [8].

The physical examination should comprise vital signs and a complete abdominal examination, assessing for right upper quadrant tenderness, ascites, hepatomegaly, splenomegaly, and ascites [9]. Additionally, the physical examination should focus on evaluating encephalopathy by looking for asterixis and changes in mental status and underlying liver disease by assessing for bruising, spider angiomas, gynecomastia, and palmar erythema [1, 8-9]. Lastly, it is important to remember that the presence of painless jaundice and an abdominal mass may point towards obstruction from a malignancy.

Investigations

Laboratory assessment

First line serum testing should include a complete blood count (CBC) to check for hemolysis, bilirubin level with fractionation, aminotransferases (AST and ALT) to assess for hepatocellular injury (although these may be normal in chronic liver disease), alkaline phosphatase, prothrombin time and/or international normalized ratio, albumin, and protein to assess for liver synthetic function. If these tests come back normal, further tests may be needed to identify the underlying cause of the patient’s jaundice, such as hepatitis serology, autoimmune markers, and investigation for acetaminophen levels [1,8].

Imaging

The majority of diagnostic imaging will be done outside of the ED. However, emergency physicians can conduct initial ultrasound screening to assess for bile duct dilation, biliary obstruction, and the presence of cholelithiasis. A CT scan can also be ordered to assess for intraparenchymal liver and pancreas disease [1,8]. Outside of the ED, investigation with Endoscopic Retrograde Cholangio-Pancreatography (ERCP), Magnetic Resonance Cholangio-Pancreatography (MRCP), and a liver biopsy may be warranted.

Management

In the ED, emergency physicians are often involved in the initial investigation of a patient with jaundice in ruling out life-threatening conditions and to decide whether a patient should be discharged or admitted for further management. For example, physicians should first assess medical emergencies that can present with jaundice, such as ascending cholangitis, acute hepatic failure, and massive hemolysis. Timely diagnosis, resuscitation, treatment initiation, and emergent consultation of these conditions are critical in the ED. Additionally, patients with elevated AST/ALT levels should be admitted if there are any signs of sepsis, coagulopathy, altered mental status, and intractable pain and vomiting. The presence of hepatocellular injury, coagulopathy, and altered mental status may point towards fulminant liver failure and may require acute fluid resuscitation and hemodynamic monitoring in an acute care setting [10]. Otherwise, depending on the underlying cause of a patient’s jaundice, surgical, gastroenterological or interventional radiological consultation may be required in an outpatient setting.

References and Further Reading

Roche, S. P., & Kobos, R. (2004). Jaundice in the adult patient. American family physician, 69(2), 299-304.
Wolfson, A. B., Hendey, G. W., Ling, L. J., Rosen, C. L., Schaider, J. J., & Sharieff, G. Q. (2012). Harwood-Nuss’ clinical practice of emergency medicine. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Sackey K. (1999). Hemolytic anemia: part 1. Pediatr Rev, 20,152-8.
Pasha, T. M., & Lindor, K. D. (1996). Diagnosis and therapy of cholestatic liver disease. Medical Clinics of North America, 80(5), 995-1019.
Schramm, C., Kanzler, S., Zum Büschenfelde, K. H. M., Galle, P. R., & Lohse, A. W. (2001). Autoimmune hepatitis in the elderly. The American journal of gastroenterology, 96(5), 1587-1591.
Lewis, J. H. (2000). Drug-induced liver disease. Medical Clinics, 84(5), 1275-1311.
Custis, K., Brown, C., & El Younis, C. M. (2000). Common biliary tract disorders. Clinics in Family Practice, 2(1), 141-154.
Fargo, M. V., Grogan, S. P., & Saguil, A. (2017). Evaluation of jaundice in adults. American family physician, 95(3), 164-168.
Winger, J., & Michelfelder, A. (2011). Diagnostic approach to the patient with jaundice. Primary Care: Clinics in Office Practice, 38(3), 469-482.
Vaquero, J., & Blei, A. T. (2003). Etiology and management of fulminant hepatic failure. Current gastroenterology reports, 5(1), 39-47.

Cite this article as: Maryam Bagherzadeh, Canada, "Approach to Jaundice in the Emergency Department," in International Emergency Medicine Education Project, May 17, 2021, https://iem-student.org/2021/05/17/approach-to-jaundice/, date accessed: September 24, 2021

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iEM Image Feed: Gallbladder Stone

April 21, 2021April 3, 2021 ~ iEM Education Project Team ~ Leave a comment

A 35-year-old woman presents to the emergency department with right upper quadrant pain of two hours duration. She awoke several hours after eating a large meal. Based on increasing pain and nausea she presents for evaluation. She denies vomiting, fever or dysuria. Her past history is notable for diet-controlled type II diabetes, dyslipidemia, and essential hypertension. Her BMI is 33. Her only medication is lisinopril 10 mg daily. She has never had surgery. Her social history is unremarkable. She neither drinks alcohol nor uses tobacco. She has begun to diet and reports recent weight loss.

Her temperature is 37ºC, blood pressure: 110/70 mmHg, pulse: 90 beats per minute. Physical exam reveals an overweight female in mild distress secondary to right upper quadrant pain. She cannot find a position of comfort and describes the pain as similar to labor pains. Pertinent exam findings include: chest exam normal, cardiac exam normal, abdominal exam demonstrates normal bowel sounds and no rebound in any quadrant. She has guarding to inspiration with palpation over the gallbladder (positive Murphy’s sign). Rectal exam normal, stool is hemoccult negative for blood. Pertinent lab values: glucose 110 mg/dl, alkaline phosphatase 120 U/L, alanine aminotransferase (ALT) 25 U/L, aspartate aminotransferase (AST) 25 U/L, gamma glutamyl transferase (GGT) 20 U/L, direct bilirubin 0.1 mg/dL, total bilirubin 0.5 mg/dL, lipase 20 U/L.

The emergency physician performs a focused right upper quadrant ultrasound and finds gallstones without associated gallbladder wall thickening or pericholecystic fluid. In addition, the patient has a “sonographic Murphy sign”: there is maximal abdominal tenderness when the ultrasound probe is pressed over the visualized gallbladder.

Question Of The Day #20

November 6, 2020November 7, 2020 ~ Joseph Ciano, USA ~ Leave a comment

608 - Figure3 - pericardial effusion - ECG

Which of the following is the most appropriate next investigation for this patient’s condition?

Explanation

This patient’s EKG demonstrates alternating amplitudes of QRS complexes, a phenomenon known as electrical alternans. This is caused by the heart swinging back and forth within a large pericardial effusion. The patient is tachycardic and borderline hypotensive, which should raise concern over impending cardiac tamponade. The next best investigation to definitively diagnose a large pericardial effusion with possible tamponade would be a cardiac sonogram (Choice B). This investigation could also guide treatment with pericardiocentesis in the event of hemodynamic decompensation and the development of obstructive shock. Other EKG signs of a large pericardial effusion are diffusely low QRS voltages and sinus tachycardia. Chest radiography (Choice C) may show an enlarged cardiac silhouette in this case and evaluate for alternative diagnoses (i.e. pneumothorax, pleural effusions, pneumonia, atelectasis), however, cardiac echocardiography is the best next investigation. CT pulmonary angiography (Choice D) would demonstrate the presence of a pericardial effusion along with differences in cardiac chamber size indicative of tamponade. Still, bedside cardiac sonogram is a faster test that prevents a delay in diagnosis. Sending a potentially unstable patient for a CT scan may also be dangerous. Arterial blood gas testing (Choice A) has no role in diagnosing pericardial effusion or cardiac tamponade. Correct Answer: B

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Which of the following is the most appropriate next investigation for this patient’s condition?
— iem-student (@iem_student) November 6, 2020

References

Imazio M. Pericardial Diseases. In: Crawford MH. eds. CURRENT Diagnosis & Treatment: Cardiology, 5e. McGraw-Hill; Accessed August 18, 2020. https://accessmedicine.mhmedical.com/content.aspx?bookid=2040&sectionid=152996466
Burns, E. (2019). ECG Findings in Massive Pericardial Effusion. Life in the Fastlane. Accessed on August 18, 2020. https://litfl.com/ecg-findings-in-massive-pericardial-effusion/

Cite this article as: Joseph Ciano, USA, "Question Of The Day #20," in International Emergency Medicine Education Project, November 6, 2020, https://iem-student.org/2020/11/06/question-of-the-day-20/, date accessed: September 24, 2021

Question Of The Day #19

October 30, 2020October 31, 2020 ~ Joseph Ciano, USA ~ Leave a comment

Which of the following is the most likely cause of the patient’s condition?

Explanation

All patients who present to the emergency department with chest pain should be evaluated for the top life-threatening conditions causing chest pain. Some of these include myocardial infarction, pulmonary embolism, esophageal rupture, tension pneumothorax, cardiac tamponade, and aortic dissection. Many of these diagnoses can be ruled-out or deemed less likely with a detailed history, physical exam, EKG, and sometimes imaging and blood testing. This patient presents with vague, burning chest pain, nausea, and tachycardia on exam. Pulmonary embolism (Choice A) is hinted by the patient’s tachycardia, but the patient has no tachypnea or risk factors mentioned for PE. Additionally, the chest X-ray findings demonstrate an abnormality that can explain the patient’s symptoms. Pancreatitis (Choice B) and Gastroesophageal reflux disorder (Choice D) are also possible diagnoses, especially with the location and description of the patient’s pain. However, Chest X-ray imaging offers an explanation for the patient’s symptoms. The patient’s Chest X-ray demonstrates the presence of pneumoperitoneum. In the presence of NSAID use, this radiological finding raises concern over a perforated viscus from advanced peptic ulcer disease (Choice C). Peptic ulcer disease (PUD) is most commonly caused by Helicobacter pylori infection, but NSAIDs, iron supplements, alcohol, cocaine, corrosive substance ingestions, and local infections can cause PUD. PUD is a clinical diagnosis which can be confirmed visually via endoscopy. The treatment for PUD includes initiation of a proton pump inhibitor (H2-receptor blockers are 2nd line), avoiding the inciting agent, and H.pylori antibiotic regimens in confirmed H.pylori cases. The treatment for a perforated peptic ulcer with pneumoperitoneum is IV fluids, IV antibiotics, Nasogastric tube placement, and surgical consultation for repair.

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Which of the following is the most likely cause of the patient’s condition?
— iem-student (@iem_student) October 30, 2020

References

McAninch S, Smithson III CC. Gastrointestinal Emergencies. In: Stone C, Humphries RL. eds. CURRENT Diagnosis & Treatment: Emergency Medicine, 8e. McGraw-Hill; Accessed August 18, 2020. https://accessmedicine.mhmedical.com/content.aspx?bookid=2172&sectionid=165065027
Nickson, C. (2019). Chest pain DDx. Life in the Fastlane. Accessed August 18, 2020. https://litfl.com/chest-pain-ddx/

Cite this article as: Joseph Ciano, USA, "Question Of The Day #19," in International Emergency Medicine Education Project, October 30, 2020, https://iem-student.org/2020/10/30/question-of-the-day-18-2/, date accessed: September 24, 2021

You may want to read these

Acute Coronary Syndrome – https://iem-student.org/acute-coronary-syndome-acs/

Acute Management Of Supraventricular Tachycardias – https://iem-student.org/2020/01/10/acute-management-of-supraventricular-tachycardias/

Deadly ECG Patterns – 5 Can’t Miss ECG Findings – https://iem-student.org/2019/11/22/deadly-ecg-patterns-5-cant-miss-ecg-findings/

Cardiac Monitoring – https://iem-student.org/cardiac-monitoring/

Question Of The Day #11

September 4, 2020September 4, 2020 ~ Joseph Ciano, USA ~ Leave a comment

Which of the following is the most appropriate next step in management for this patient’s condition?

Explanation

IV antihypertensives and CT surgery consultation (Choice A) would be the best treatment for a patient with aortic dissection. This diagnosis is characterized by severe tearing chest pain that radiates to the back, along with hypertension. Risk factors include tobacco smoking, uncontrolled hypertension, trauma (i.e. rapid deceleration), and connective tissue diseases (i.e. Marfan syndrome). Other than chest pain with radiation to the back, this patient lacks the other risk factors for aortic dissection, making Choice A less likely. IV heparin (Choice B) would be the correct choice for the treatment of pulmonary embolism and acute coronary syndrome (i.e. NSTEMI). Both of these diagnoses are possible, but a chest CT scan with PO water-soluble contrast is not the gold standard for diagnosing PE or ACS. A CT Pulmonary angiogram is ideal for PE diagnosis, and an EKG along with troponin levels are ideal for ACS diagnosis. Pericardiocentesis (Choice C) is the treatment for cardiac tamponade. The patient’s vitals show no evidence of obstructive shock, and there is no history of penetrating chest trauma, pericardial effusion, end-stage renal disease, HIV, lupus, cancer, or other risk factors for cardiac tamponade. Choice D outlines the best course of action to take in a patient with esophageal rupture, which is the disease described in the question stem. This condition can occur spontaneously after forceful vomiting causing high pressures in the esophagus (Boerhaave syndrome). In this situation, the chest pain typically begins after the onset of vomiting. Other etiologies of esophageal rupture include deceleration injuries and penetrating trauma (i.e. gunshot wounds, iatrogenic via esophagogastroduodenoscopy (EGD)). A “Hamman’s Crunch”, subcutaneous emphysema, fever, and signs of shock can be seen on exam. Diagnosis is confirmed by an esophagram or a CT scan of the chest with water-soluble oral contrast (i.e. Gastrograffin). Esophageal rupture is a life-threatening diagnosis as esophageal contents can spill into the mediastinum, causing mediastinitis and septic shock. The treatment is typically surgical with the repair of the perforated segment and drainage of fluid collections. Correct Answer: D

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❓ Which of the following is the most appropriate next step in management for this patient’s condition❓CTS: Cardiothoracic Surgery, IV: intravenous. HT: hypertensive. FL: fluids, AB: antibiotics. A detailed answer will be found in https://t.co/XvqTTNtHys on Friday 11 PM UK time.
— iem-student (@iem_student) September 4, 2020

References

Smith LM, Mahler SA. Chest Pain. In: Tintinalli JE, Ma O, Yealy DM, Meckler GD, Stapczynski J, Cline DM, Thomas SH. eds. Tintinalli’s Emergency Medicine: A Comprehensive Study Guide, 9e. McGraw-Hill; Accessed August 17, 2020. https://accessmedicine.mhmedical.com/content.aspx?bookid=2353&sectionid=219641169

Nickson, C. (2019) Oesophageal Perforation. Life in the Fast Lane. Accessed August 17, 2020. https://litfl.com/oesophageal-perforation/

Cite this article as: Joseph Ciano, USA, "Question Of The Day #11," in International Emergency Medicine Education Project, September 4, 2020, https://iem-student.org/2020/09/04/question-of-the-day-11/, date accessed: September 24, 2021

Mnemonic for Right Lower Quadrant Pain

February 17, 2019February 16, 2019 ~ iEM Education Project Team ~ Leave a comment

17 years old girl, previously known healthy, vomited blood!

September 22, 2018September 24, 2018 ~ iEM Education Project Team ~ Leave a comment

17 years old girl, previously known healthy, vomited blood!
This is an extremely serious symptom. Although this patient’s vitals were totally in the normal range, actively vomiting blood should warn physicians to act immediately to protect further deterioration in the patient. This may even include early airway protection because we simply do not want them to aspirate any blood. Having a normal vitals with this picture does not mean anything, and should not create a relaxing environment in the treatment/resuscitation bay. Honestly, this patient should go directly to resuscitation bed from the triage.

Steps are straightforward. Protect the airway if necessary, start oxygen like in any other critically ill patient during/for primary evaluation(survey). Open the two large bore IV line, give fluid bolus, order type, and cross, and be ready for any deterioration in the BP and starting blood (ORh-). Obviously, even starting a transfusion earlier may be appropriate. Activating GI team for emergency endoscopy is necessary. However, some institutions may not have this luxury 24 hours. Therefore, other measures such as mechanical compressions with Sengstaken-Blakemore tube and some medications can be an only option. This patients final diagnosis was Variceal Bleeding.

To learn more about management please read two GI bleeding chapters below.

Massive Gastrointestinal Bleeding by Dan O’Brien

Gastrointestinal Bleeding by Moira Carrol, Gurpreet Mudan, and Suzanne Bentley

Swallowed Coin

September 7, 2018September 7, 2018 ~ iEM Education Project Team ~ Leave a comment

In case you didn’t encounter a 6-year-old patient who swallowed a coin today!

iEM Education Project Team uploads many clinical picture and videos to the Flickr and YouTube. These images are free to use in education. You can also support this global EM education initiative by providing your resources. Sharing is caring!